So we can certify 100% that all our customers are happy with the quality that they're buying and the products are working properly in all companies without any problem...
IF FINAL CUSTOMER IS HAPPY WE'RE ALSO HAPPY!!!
martes, 3 de julio de 2012
Pigments for ceramic digital inks production
Following up with our last post about new launching of ceramic pigments for ceramic digital inks production, we want to show that right now at least three producers in Italy and Spain are using these pigments and inks have been certified by XAAR AND SEIKO and also are used in all kind of machinery, from Kerajet to Cretaprint, Tecnoferrari or Keramagic.
Pigments for ceramic digital inks
After some time since our last document in this blog, we come back with an important new, Olucha Colors launch their ceramic pigments for the production of digital inks.
Inside the field of ceramic industry all of us know that digital technology has become a revolutionary step for production. Till now only big Spanish companies were producing digital inks and all world production of digital tiles had to buy from them or from companies who were buying from them.
After long R&D work, Olucha Colors launch a new range of ceramic pigments specially designed for the production of digital inks.
So with this new pigments all companies can get their own digital inks just following proper production process.
These are the right products for Indian and Chinese markets where low cost production is very important and with these new pigments we're offering to local companies the possibility of producing inks locally and becoming competitive against Spanish big frit companies.
From our side we think this proposal could be revolutionary in this new market that digital production has opened to ceramic industry, market will be more competitive and price of digital inks will decrease, so tiles companies will decrease even more their costing price by buying inks from Chinese or Indian producers. The future of ceramics is right here and can be opened to all pigments producers who would like to start producing digital inks locally.
We'll keep all of you 100% posted about this revolutionary launching and its development in incoming weeks.
Inside the field of ceramic industry all of us know that digital technology has become a revolutionary step for production. Till now only big Spanish companies were producing digital inks and all world production of digital tiles had to buy from them or from companies who were buying from them.
After long R&D work, Olucha Colors launch a new range of ceramic pigments specially designed for the production of digital inks.
So with this new pigments all companies can get their own digital inks just following proper production process.
These are the right products for Indian and Chinese markets where low cost production is very important and with these new pigments we're offering to local companies the possibility of producing inks locally and becoming competitive against Spanish big frit companies.
From our side we think this proposal could be revolutionary in this new market that digital production has opened to ceramic industry, market will be more competitive and price of digital inks will decrease, so tiles companies will decrease even more their costing price by buying inks from Chinese or Indian producers. The future of ceramics is right here and can be opened to all pigments producers who would like to start producing digital inks locally.
We'll keep all of you 100% posted about this revolutionary launching and its development in incoming weeks.
martes, 8 de marzo de 2011
COBALT AND ITS COMPOUNDS
COBALT AND ITS COMPOUNDS
N. Angelescu, Cristiana Rizescu
“Valahia” University of Targoviste
Abstract
Cobalt is a compound that occurs in nature. It occurs in many different chemical forms. Pure cobalt is a steel-gray, shiny, hard metal. Cobalt used in industry is imported or obtained by recycling scrap metal that contains cobalt. It is used to make alloys (mixtures of metals), colored pigments, and as a drier for paint and porcelain enamel used on steel bathroom fixtures, large appliances, and kitchenwares. Small amounts naturally occur in food. Vitamin B12 is a cobalt-containing compound that is essential for good health.. Some natural sources of cobalt in the environment are soil, dust, and seawater. Cobalt is also released from burning coal and oil, and from car and truck exhaust. Cobalt enters the environment from natural sources and from the burning of coal and oil. Cobalt stays in the air for a few days. Pure cobalt does not dissolve in water, but some of its compounds do.
Everyone is exposed to cobalt at low levels in air, water, and food. People who live near hazardous waste sites containing cobalt may be exposed to higher levels of this chemical. Food is another source of exposure to cobalt.
Key words: cobalt, air, water, soil, food
Introduction
Cobalt is a brittle, hard metal, resembling iron and nickel in appearance. It has a metallic permeability of about two thirds that of iron. Cobalt tends to exist as a mixture of two allotropes over a wide temperature range. The transformation is sluggish and accounts in part for the wide variation in reported data on physical properties of cobalt.
Cobalt has also been used as a treatment for anemia, as it causes red blood cell production
Cobalt can stay for years in water and soil. It can move from the soil to underground water. Plants take up cobalt from the soil. OSHA exposure limit: 0.1 0.1mg/m³ for cobalt in workplace air for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour work week. American Conference on General and Industrial Hygiene (ACGIH) occupational exposure limit: 0.02 mg/m³ for cobalt for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) occupational exposure limit: 0.05 mg/m³ for cobalt for a 10-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
Cobalt does not occur naturally as a base metal, but is a component of more than 70 naturally occurring minerals, including various sulfides, arsenides, sulfoarsenides, hydrates, and oxides. The most common cobalt minerals are the arsenide CoAs2–3 (smeltite), the arsenosulfide CoAsS (cobaltine), and the sulfide Co3S4 (linneite) (IARC, 1991).
Sources of environmental cobalt are both natural and anthropogenic (Barceloux, 1999). Natural sources include erosion (wind-blown continental dusts), weathering of rocks and soil, seawater spray, volcanoes, forest fires, extraction by plants, and continental and marine biogenic emissions. The worldwide estimate for atmospheric cobalt emissions is 5350–6170 tonnes per year (Lantzy & Mackenzie, 1979; Nriagu, 1989). Cobalt compounds have been found to occur naturally in seawater, surface water, spring water, and groundwater (Smith & Carson, 1981).
Cobalt is normally associated with copper or nickel; mined ore often contains only 0.1% elemental cobalt. About 44% of world production of cobalt comes from nickel ores. Cobalt is extracted from the metals in the ore by both flotation (sulfide ores) and gravity (arsenide ores); roasting or acid leaching is necessary to concentrate the cobalt (Barceloux, 1999). Cobalt is also extracted from the ore and concentrated by pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and electrolytic processes alone or in combination (Donaldson et al., 1986).
It is alloyed with iron, nickel and other metals to make Alnico, an alloy of unusual magnetic strength with many important uses. Stellite alloys, containing cobalt, chromium, and tungsten, are used for high-speed, heavy-duty, high temperature cutting tools, and for dies (Cobalt Development Institute, 2004).
Cobalt is also used in other magnetic steels and stainless steels, and in alloys used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators. The metal is used in electroplating because of its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.
The salts have been used for centuries to producte brilliant and permanent blue colors in porcelain, glass, pottery, tiles, and enamels. It is the principal ingredient in Sevre's and Thenard's blue. A solution of the chloride is used as a sympathetic ink. Cobalt carefully used in the form of the chloride, sulfate, acetate, or nitrate has been found effective in correcting a certain mineral deficiency disease in animals.
Soils should contain 0.13 to 0.30 ppm of cobalt for proper animal nutrition.
Cobalt-60, an artificial isotope, is an important gamma ray source, and is extensively used as a tracer and a radiotherapeutic agent.
Cobalt metal has three major uses in the petrochemical and plastic industries as both heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts: (1) hydro-treating and desulfurization catalysts for oil and gas; these catalysts are typically 3–5% cobalt oxide (Co3O4), 14% manganese trioxide (MnO3), and the balance aluminium oxide (Al2O3); (2) mixed cobalt acetate/manganese–sodium bromide homogeneous catalyst for the production of terephthalic acid and dimethyl terephthalate; and (3) cobalt catalyst in the oxo synthesis (hydroformylation) for the production of alcohols and aldehydes for plastic and detergent production, employing freshly reduced cobalt metal, carbonyls, or cobalt salts (transformed in situ to carbonyl) (Cobalt Development Institute, undated b; USGS, 2005).
Everyone is exposed to cobalt at low levels in air, water, and food. People who live near hazardous waste sites containing cobalt may be exposed to higher levels of this chemical. Food is another source of exposure to cobalt.
Workers may be exposed to cobalt in industries that process it or make products containing cobalt. Acute toxicity of cobalt may be observed as effects on the lungs, including asthma, pneumonia, and wheezing, that have been found in workers who breathed high levels of cobalt in the air. In the 1960s, some breweries added cobalt to beer to stabilize the foam. Some people who drank large quantities of the beer experienced nausea, vomiting, and serious effects on the heart. However, effects on the heart were not seen in people with anemia or pregnant women treated with cobalt. Animal studies have found problems with the development of the fetus in animals exposed to high concentrations of cobalt during pregnancy. However, cobalt is also essential for the growth and development of certain animals. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (USA) has determined that cobalt is a possible carcinogen to humans. Studies in animals have shown that cobalt causes cancer when placed directly into the muscle or under the skin. Cobalt did not cause cancer in animals that were exposed to it in the air, in food, or in drinking water. Human studies are inconclusive regarding cobalt and cancer. Tests for urine and blood level detection - accurate for up to a few days after exposure because cobalt leaves the body fairly quickly. Special equipment needed for detection is usually not available in doctors’ offices.
This CICAD - Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 69 - (This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, or the World Health Organization) on cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds was prepared by Sciences International, Inc. in the United States and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in the United Kingdom and was based on reviews prepared by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR, 2004) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2005). This CICAD was considered and approved as an international assessment at a meeting of the Final Review Board held in Nagpur, India, on 31 October – 3 November 2005. International Chemical Safety Cards for cobalt, cobalt(II) oxide, cobalt(III) oxide, cobalt(II) sulfide, cobalt(II) chloride, cobalt(II) sulfate, cobalt(II) sulfate heptahydrate, cobalt(II) nitrate, cobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate, cobalt(II) acetate tetrahydrate, cobalt naphthenate, and cobalt carbonyl, produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS, 2000, 2001a–e, 2004a–f).
Cobalt (CAS No. 7440-48-4) is a silvery grey solid at room temperature. It is the 33rd most abundant element and has been found in a variety of media, including air, surface water, leachate from hazardous waste sites, groundwater, soil, and sediment. Sources of exposure to cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds are both natural and anthropogenic. Natural sources include wind-blown dust, seawater spray, volcanoes, forest fires, and continental and marine biogenic emissions. Anthropogenic sources include the burning of fossil fuels, sewage sludge, phosphate fertilizers, mining and smelting of cobalt ores, processing of cobalt alloys, and industries that use or process cobalt compounds.
Cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds are non-volatile and released into the atmosphere in particulate form. Anthropogenic cobalt from combustion sources is assumed to be primarily in the form of oxides. Sulfide and arsenide forms are also released into the atmosphere during ore extraction and refining processes.
Factors affecting the speciation and fate of cobalt in water, sediments, and soil include organic ligands such as humic acids, anions, pH, and redox potential. The soil mobility of cobalt is inversely related to the strength of adsorption by soil constituents. Although plants may take up cobalt from the soil, the translocation of cobalt from the roots to other parts of the plant is not significant.
Measured atmospheric concentrations of cobalt are about 1 ng/m3 or less in non-source areas and generally less than 10 ng/m3 in source areas, although higher concentrations in source areas have been reported. Surface water and groundwater concentrations of cobalt are low, below 1 µg/l in pristine areas and 1–10 µg/l in populated areas. Surface water and groundwater concentrations can be much higher in mining and agricultural areas — as much as several hundred milligrams per litre. Mean cobalt concentrations in seawater have been reported to be less than 1 µg/l. Cobalt concentrations in drinking-water are generally <1–2 µg/l. In rainwater, mean concentrations are 0.3–1.7 µg/l. The earth’s crust contains an average cobalt concentration of 20–25 mg/kg. Near some anthropogenic sources, the concentration of cobalt in soil may be several hundred milligrams per kilogram.
The largest source of exposure to cobalt for the general population is the food supply. The estimated intake from food is 5–40 µg/day, most of which is inorganic cobalt. Occupational exposure to cobalt occurs in several industries. Levels of cobalt in tobacco range from <0.3 to 2.3 µg/g dry weight, and approximately 0.5% of this cobalt is present in mainstream smoke. Cobalt concentrations in coal, crude oil, fuel oil, and gasoline in the United States were found to be 5 mg/kg, 0.001–10 mg/kg, 0.03–0.3 mg/kg, and <0.1 mg/kg, respectively.
Inhalation of cobalt particles results in deposition in the upper and lower respiratory tract, where they can be retained or absorbed into the blood after dissolution or mechanically transferred to the gastrointestinal tract by mucociliary action and swallowing. Approximately 50% of the cobalt that enters the gastrointestinal tract will be absorbed. Cobalt absorption is increased among individuals who are iron deficient. Water-soluble forms are better absorbed than insoluble forms. Total body burden is estimated as 1.1–1.5 mg, with 0.11 mg in the liver.
No studies describe the distribution of cobalt in humans following ingestion, but animal studies indicate that cobalt is retained primarily in the liver. In a controlled human aerosol exposure study, 40% of the initial lung burden of cobalt oxide was retained at 6 months after exposure.
Atmospheric cobalt is associated with particulate matter principally to the extent to which particles of soil are dispersed by the wind. At unpolluted sites, mean cobalt levels are typically <1–2 ng/m3 (Smith & Carson, 1981; Hamilton, 1994). At the South Pole, the concentration of cobalt was 0.000 49 ± 0.000 15 ng/m3 in 1974–1975 (Maenhaut et al., 1979). In open-ocean environments, mean cobalt concentrations ranged from 0.0004 to 0.08 ng/m3 (Chester et al., 1991). As examples of cobalt concentrations in urban areas, the annual average cobalt concentration at Nahant, Massachusetts (near Boston), USA, in 1992–1993 was 1.7 ng/m3 (Golomb et al., 1997), whereas in Seville, Spain, during 1996 it was 0.5 ng/m3 (Espinosa et al., 2001). In southern Norway, the mean cobalt level was 0.10 ng/m3 in 1985–1986 (Amundsen et al., 1992). In source areas, cobalt concentrations may exceed 10 ng/m3. The highest average atmospheric cobalt concentration was recorded near a nickel refinery in Wales, at 48 ng/m3 (Smith & Carson, 1981).
Cobalt is a metal found naturally in soil, dust, and seawater. It is usually found in association with nickel. Cobalt and its salts have many uses, the table below shows some of the many sources of cobalt and where or how we may come into contact with them either at home or at work.
Home/personal sources Work sources
• Cobalt blue pigment in porcelain, glass, pottery, ceramics and enamels
• Cobalt blue in blue and green water colour paints and crayons
• Metal-plated objects
• Buckles
• Buttons
• Zippers
• Snaps
• Costume jewellery
• Utensils
• Tools
• Medical uses
• Vitamin B12 preparations for the treatment of anaemia
• Metal prostheses
• Dental plates
• Hair dyes; cobalt pigment produces light brown shades of hair
• Antiperspirant preparations
• Cobalt used as binding agent in hard metals to create drills, cutting tools, mechanical parts
• Cobalt naphthenate is a common catalyst in the manufacture of polyester resins
• Manufacture of cobalt-containing alloys
• As an oxidizing agent in automobile exhaust controls, in the rubber tire industry and in electroplating
• Cement industry; cement contains cobalt oxides
• Cobalt siccatives or driers are found in certain paints and varnishes
• Binding agent in the carbide industry
• Wet clay containing cobalt used by pottery workers
Reactions to contact with cobalt in an allergic individual include allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis. Vitamin B12 injections administered to allergic individuals may produce a red, tender and itchy area around the site of the injection. Oral ingestion of vitamin B12 is known to cause intractable hand eczema is some patients.
In many cases, allergic reactions are not caused solely by cobalt sensitisation. For example, metal objects almost always also contain nickel and in the cement industry nickel and chromium are present. Nickel and chromium are also potent sensitisers therefore; allergic reactions may not be due solely to cobalt but also to simultaneous specific allergy to nickel and chromium.
Nickel and cobalt are always found together in alloys and salts because it is too costly and impracticable to separate these two metals. Thus patch testing should always include both cobalt and nickel. Unfortunately, patch test results with cobalt and nickel can be confusing as it is extremely difficult to obtain pure solutions of each individual metal.
Intradermal testing with cobalt may also be performed to diagnose cobalt sensitivity.
Where avoidance is not achievable, several methods can be used to try to minimize exposure. Brief contact with metal devices is usually not a problem except in highly sensitive individuals.
In the workplace try to avoid exposure to cobalt, however this may not be practicable thus use measures to minimize exposure as described above. Identify potential sources of exposure using Material Safety Data Sheets; these are required for all chemicals and substances that you may come into contact with in the workplace. If you must use products that contain cobalt, wear gloves or other protective clothing to avoid contact with your skin.
Outside of the workplace, the best way to avoid cobalt allergy is by being aware of the possible sources of cobalt. Read product labels and do not use any that contain cobalt or any of its alternative names. If unsure ask your pharmacist for advice or a suitable alternative. Only use cosmetics, antiperspirants and hair dyes that you know do not contain cobalt. Avoid metallic costume jewellery. Sterling silver and platinum jewellery is usually tolerated.
Alert your doctor or dentist to the fact that you have an allergy to cobalt. Your dermatologist may have further specific advice, particularly if you are highly sensitive to cobalt.
Sources of Exposure to Cobalt
• Alloys
• Buttons
• Buckles
• Carbide
• Ceramics
• Cement
• Clay
• Cosmetics
• Costume jewellery
• Cutting tools
• Dental plates
• Detergents
• Flypapers
• Glass
• Hair dye
• Kitchen utensils
• Metal prostheses
• Oils
• Paints
• Pottery
• Polyester resin
• Printing inks
• Rock drills
• Rubber tires
• Tools
• Vitamin B12
• Zippers
Cobalt and its salts have high acute (short-term) toxicity on aquatic life. It also has high chronic (long-term) toxicity on aquatic life. There is not sufficient data to determine the acute or chronic toxicity of cobalt and its compounds on plants, birds or land animals. Cobalt and its compounds are highly persistent in water and the environment. Cobalt will bioaccumulate or concentrate in the tissues of fish.
Industrial emissions of cobalt and or cobalt compounds can produce elevated, but still low level concentrations in the atmosphere around the source. Because of its short life expectancy in the atmosphere cobalt and or cobalt compounds is expected to be confined to the local area within which it is emitted.
Cobalt and its compounds are expected to act like other particles in the atmosphere. The way they deposit in the local area will depend on the local wind and rain. They are expected to remain in the atmosphere from 5 to 15 days.
No national guidelines.
Common uses
Cobalt is a metal that occurs naturally in many different forms. Small amounts of it are found in most rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals. Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12, which is required for good health. The largest use of cobalt metal is to make alloys, which retain strength even when very hot. It is also used to help paint dry quickly. Cobalt is also used to make artificial body parts such as hip and knee joints. Cobalt carbonate is used in ceramics and as an animal feed supplement in trace amounts. Cobalt chloride is used as a humidity and water indicator, in electroplating, in the manufacture of vitamin B12, as a fertilizer and feed additive in trace amounts. Cobalt oxide is used in pigments for ceramics and glass, in fast drying paints and varnishes, in semiconductors, in enamel coatings on steel, and again as an animal feed additive in trace amounts. Cobalt sulfate is used in electroplating, in batteries, as a drying agent in inks and varnishes, in enamels, and ceramics, and as a feed and fertilizer additive.
Sources of emissions
• Industry sources
• Diffuse sources, and industry sources included in diffuse emissions data
• Natural sources
• Transport sources
• Consumer product that may contain cobalt and compounds
Industry sources
Cobalt is mainly emitted from sources where it is used in the production of steel and other alloys. It may be emitted to air, land or water from these sources. Automotive repair shops may be significant emitters (to air) of cobalt. It will also be emitted to air, land and water during the mining or refining of nickel, copper, silver, lead and iron.
Diffuse sources, and industry sources included in diffuse emissions data
Cobalt may be emitted to air, land or water from the manufacture, use or disposal of paints and varnishes. It may also be emitted to air, land or water from the manufacture, use or disposal of ceramic, inks, and enamels.
Natural sources
Cobalt is found in soil, dust, seawater, volcanic emissions, and smoke from forest and bush fires.
Transport sources
Small amounts of cobalt have been found in motor vehicle exhaust.
Consumer products that may contain cobalt and its compounds
Consumer products containing cobalt and its compounds include: vitamin B12, animal feeds and fertilisers, paints, varnish, enamels and ceramics. It is in metals used at high temperatures (e.g. some car parts).
Management of cobalt allergy
Identifying possible sources of contact and avoiding them is the only long-term management strategy for cobalt allergy. Where avoidance is not achievable, several methods can be used to try to minimize exposure. Brief contact with metal devices is usually not a problem except in highly sensitive individuals.
IARC - The International Agency for Research on Cancer (2005) evaluated the carcinogenic hazards of cobalt and cobalt compounds and concluded that:
•There is limited evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of cobalt metal with tungsten carbide.
•There is inadequate evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of cobalt metal without tungsten carbide.
•There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of cobalt sulfate.
•There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of cobalt metal powder.
•There is limited evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of metal alloys containing cobalt.
•There is inadequate evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of cobalt–aluminium–chromium spinel.
The overall evaluation was that:
•Cobalt metal with tungsten carbide is probably carcinogenic to humans.
•Cobalt metal without tungsten carbide is possibly carcinogenic to humans.
•Cobalt sulfate and other soluble cobalt(II) salts are possibly carcinogenic to humans
Methods to minimize cobalt exposure
•Use metal instruments such as scissors, kitchen utensils and combs that have plastic or wooden handle grips.
• If necessary, wear vinyl or rubber gloves to avoid contact (however, do not use for wet work as moisture increases the penetration of cobalt into the skin).
• Items such as keys can be coated with several layer of clear nail polish.
In the workplace, wear protective clothing and employ no-touch techniques
Comparison to other substances
NPI rank - The National Pollutant Inventory – Australia - approximately 400 substances were considered for inclusion on the NPI reporting list. A ranking and total hazard score was given based on health and environmental hazards and human and environmental exposure to the substance.
Cobalt and its compounds was ranked as 27 out of 400.
References
1. Abbasi SA, Nipaney PC, Soni R (1989) Environmental status of cobalt and its micro determination with 7-nitroso-8-hydroxyquinoline-5-sulfonic acid in waters, aquatic weeds and animal tissues. Analytical Letters, 22(1):225–235.
2. Abraham JL, Hunt A (1995) Environmental contamination by cobalt in the vicinity of a cemented tungsten carbide tool grinding plant. Environmental Research, 69:67–74.
3. ACGIH (1999) 1999 TLVs and BEIs. Threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents. Biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 184 pp.
4. Adam C, Baudin JP, Garnier-Laplace J (2001) Kinetics of 110mAg, 60Co, 137Cs and 54Mn bioaccumulation from water and depuration by the crustacean Daphnia magna. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 125:171–188.
5. Adriano DC (1986) Trace elements in the terrestrial environment. New York, NY, Springer-Verlag.
6. Afeworki S, Chandravanshi BS (1987) Simultaneous determination of iron(III) and cobalt(II) with N-phenylcinnamohydroxamic acid and thiocyanate by extraction and spectrophotometry. Mikrochimica Acta, 92:143–152.
7. Ahluwalia AS, Kaur M (1988) Effect of some heavy metal compounds on growth and differentiation in a blue-green and a green alga. Microbios, 53:37–45.
8. Albrecht A (2003) Validating riverine transport and speciation models using nuclear reactor-derived radiocobalt. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 66:295–307.
9. Aldenberg T, Slob W (1993) Confidence limits for hazardous concentrations based on logistically distributed NOEC toxicity data. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 25:48–63.
10. Alexander CS (1969) Cobalt and the heart. Annals of Internal Medicine, 70:411–413.
11.International Programme on Chemical Safety (1994) Assessing human health risks of chemicals: derivation of guidance values for health-based exposure limits. Geneva, World Health Organization (Environmental Health Criteria 170) (also available at http://www.who.int/pcs/).
12.Hanna RGM (1992) The level of heavy metals in the Red Sea after 50 years. Science of the Total Environment, 125:417–448.
13. Gibbs RJ (1994) Metals in the sediments along the Hudson River estuary. Environment International, 20(4):507–516.
14. Gladstones JS, Loneragan JF, Goodchild NA (1977) Field responses to cobalt and molybdenum by different legume species, with inferences on the role of cobalt in legume growth. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(4):619–628.
15. Francis CW, Davis EC, Goyert JC (1985) Plant uptake of trace elements from coal gasification ashes. Journal of Environmental Quality, 14(4):561–569.
16. Donaldson JD (1986) Cobalt in the environment. In: Proceedings of the first congress on cobalt and the environment, Toronto, Ontario, 2–3 April 1986. Guildford, Surrey, Cobalt Development Institute, pp.1–21.
17. Donaldson JD, Clark SJ, Grimes SM (1986) Cobalt in medicine, agriculture and environment. Guildford, Surrey, Cobalt Development Institute.
18. Dalvi RR, Robbins TJ (1978) Comparative studies on the effect of cadmium, cobalt, lead, and selenium on hepatic microsomal monooxygenase enzymes and glutathione levels in mice. Journal of Environmental Pathology and Toxicology, 1:601–607.
N. Angelescu, Cristiana Rizescu
“Valahia” University of Targoviste
Abstract
Cobalt is a compound that occurs in nature. It occurs in many different chemical forms. Pure cobalt is a steel-gray, shiny, hard metal. Cobalt used in industry is imported or obtained by recycling scrap metal that contains cobalt. It is used to make alloys (mixtures of metals), colored pigments, and as a drier for paint and porcelain enamel used on steel bathroom fixtures, large appliances, and kitchenwares. Small amounts naturally occur in food. Vitamin B12 is a cobalt-containing compound that is essential for good health.. Some natural sources of cobalt in the environment are soil, dust, and seawater. Cobalt is also released from burning coal and oil, and from car and truck exhaust. Cobalt enters the environment from natural sources and from the burning of coal and oil. Cobalt stays in the air for a few days. Pure cobalt does not dissolve in water, but some of its compounds do.
Everyone is exposed to cobalt at low levels in air, water, and food. People who live near hazardous waste sites containing cobalt may be exposed to higher levels of this chemical. Food is another source of exposure to cobalt.
Key words: cobalt, air, water, soil, food
Introduction
Cobalt is a brittle, hard metal, resembling iron and nickel in appearance. It has a metallic permeability of about two thirds that of iron. Cobalt tends to exist as a mixture of two allotropes over a wide temperature range. The transformation is sluggish and accounts in part for the wide variation in reported data on physical properties of cobalt.
Cobalt has also been used as a treatment for anemia, as it causes red blood cell production
Cobalt can stay for years in water and soil. It can move from the soil to underground water. Plants take up cobalt from the soil. OSHA exposure limit: 0.1 0.1mg/m³ for cobalt in workplace air for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour work week. American Conference on General and Industrial Hygiene (ACGIH) occupational exposure limit: 0.02 mg/m³ for cobalt for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) occupational exposure limit: 0.05 mg/m³ for cobalt for a 10-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
Cobalt does not occur naturally as a base metal, but is a component of more than 70 naturally occurring minerals, including various sulfides, arsenides, sulfoarsenides, hydrates, and oxides. The most common cobalt minerals are the arsenide CoAs2–3 (smeltite), the arsenosulfide CoAsS (cobaltine), and the sulfide Co3S4 (linneite) (IARC, 1991).
Sources of environmental cobalt are both natural and anthropogenic (Barceloux, 1999). Natural sources include erosion (wind-blown continental dusts), weathering of rocks and soil, seawater spray, volcanoes, forest fires, extraction by plants, and continental and marine biogenic emissions. The worldwide estimate for atmospheric cobalt emissions is 5350–6170 tonnes per year (Lantzy & Mackenzie, 1979; Nriagu, 1989). Cobalt compounds have been found to occur naturally in seawater, surface water, spring water, and groundwater (Smith & Carson, 1981).
Cobalt is normally associated with copper or nickel; mined ore often contains only 0.1% elemental cobalt. About 44% of world production of cobalt comes from nickel ores. Cobalt is extracted from the metals in the ore by both flotation (sulfide ores) and gravity (arsenide ores); roasting or acid leaching is necessary to concentrate the cobalt (Barceloux, 1999). Cobalt is also extracted from the ore and concentrated by pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and electrolytic processes alone or in combination (Donaldson et al., 1986).
It is alloyed with iron, nickel and other metals to make Alnico, an alloy of unusual magnetic strength with many important uses. Stellite alloys, containing cobalt, chromium, and tungsten, are used for high-speed, heavy-duty, high temperature cutting tools, and for dies (Cobalt Development Institute, 2004).
Cobalt is also used in other magnetic steels and stainless steels, and in alloys used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators. The metal is used in electroplating because of its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.
The salts have been used for centuries to producte brilliant and permanent blue colors in porcelain, glass, pottery, tiles, and enamels. It is the principal ingredient in Sevre's and Thenard's blue. A solution of the chloride is used as a sympathetic ink. Cobalt carefully used in the form of the chloride, sulfate, acetate, or nitrate has been found effective in correcting a certain mineral deficiency disease in animals.
Soils should contain 0.13 to 0.30 ppm of cobalt for proper animal nutrition.
Cobalt-60, an artificial isotope, is an important gamma ray source, and is extensively used as a tracer and a radiotherapeutic agent.
Cobalt metal has three major uses in the petrochemical and plastic industries as both heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts: (1) hydro-treating and desulfurization catalysts for oil and gas; these catalysts are typically 3–5% cobalt oxide (Co3O4), 14% manganese trioxide (MnO3), and the balance aluminium oxide (Al2O3); (2) mixed cobalt acetate/manganese–sodium bromide homogeneous catalyst for the production of terephthalic acid and dimethyl terephthalate; and (3) cobalt catalyst in the oxo synthesis (hydroformylation) for the production of alcohols and aldehydes for plastic and detergent production, employing freshly reduced cobalt metal, carbonyls, or cobalt salts (transformed in situ to carbonyl) (Cobalt Development Institute, undated b; USGS, 2005).
Everyone is exposed to cobalt at low levels in air, water, and food. People who live near hazardous waste sites containing cobalt may be exposed to higher levels of this chemical. Food is another source of exposure to cobalt.
Workers may be exposed to cobalt in industries that process it or make products containing cobalt. Acute toxicity of cobalt may be observed as effects on the lungs, including asthma, pneumonia, and wheezing, that have been found in workers who breathed high levels of cobalt in the air. In the 1960s, some breweries added cobalt to beer to stabilize the foam. Some people who drank large quantities of the beer experienced nausea, vomiting, and serious effects on the heart. However, effects on the heart were not seen in people with anemia or pregnant women treated with cobalt. Animal studies have found problems with the development of the fetus in animals exposed to high concentrations of cobalt during pregnancy. However, cobalt is also essential for the growth and development of certain animals. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (USA) has determined that cobalt is a possible carcinogen to humans. Studies in animals have shown that cobalt causes cancer when placed directly into the muscle or under the skin. Cobalt did not cause cancer in animals that were exposed to it in the air, in food, or in drinking water. Human studies are inconclusive regarding cobalt and cancer. Tests for urine and blood level detection - accurate for up to a few days after exposure because cobalt leaves the body fairly quickly. Special equipment needed for detection is usually not available in doctors’ offices.
This CICAD - Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 69 - (This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, or the World Health Organization) on cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds was prepared by Sciences International, Inc. in the United States and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in the United Kingdom and was based on reviews prepared by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR, 2004) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2005). This CICAD was considered and approved as an international assessment at a meeting of the Final Review Board held in Nagpur, India, on 31 October – 3 November 2005. International Chemical Safety Cards for cobalt, cobalt(II) oxide, cobalt(III) oxide, cobalt(II) sulfide, cobalt(II) chloride, cobalt(II) sulfate, cobalt(II) sulfate heptahydrate, cobalt(II) nitrate, cobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate, cobalt(II) acetate tetrahydrate, cobalt naphthenate, and cobalt carbonyl, produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS, 2000, 2001a–e, 2004a–f).
Cobalt (CAS No. 7440-48-4) is a silvery grey solid at room temperature. It is the 33rd most abundant element and has been found in a variety of media, including air, surface water, leachate from hazardous waste sites, groundwater, soil, and sediment. Sources of exposure to cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds are both natural and anthropogenic. Natural sources include wind-blown dust, seawater spray, volcanoes, forest fires, and continental and marine biogenic emissions. Anthropogenic sources include the burning of fossil fuels, sewage sludge, phosphate fertilizers, mining and smelting of cobalt ores, processing of cobalt alloys, and industries that use or process cobalt compounds.
Cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds are non-volatile and released into the atmosphere in particulate form. Anthropogenic cobalt from combustion sources is assumed to be primarily in the form of oxides. Sulfide and arsenide forms are also released into the atmosphere during ore extraction and refining processes.
Factors affecting the speciation and fate of cobalt in water, sediments, and soil include organic ligands such as humic acids, anions, pH, and redox potential. The soil mobility of cobalt is inversely related to the strength of adsorption by soil constituents. Although plants may take up cobalt from the soil, the translocation of cobalt from the roots to other parts of the plant is not significant.
Measured atmospheric concentrations of cobalt are about 1 ng/m3 or less in non-source areas and generally less than 10 ng/m3 in source areas, although higher concentrations in source areas have been reported. Surface water and groundwater concentrations of cobalt are low, below 1 µg/l in pristine areas and 1–10 µg/l in populated areas. Surface water and groundwater concentrations can be much higher in mining and agricultural areas — as much as several hundred milligrams per litre. Mean cobalt concentrations in seawater have been reported to be less than 1 µg/l. Cobalt concentrations in drinking-water are generally <1–2 µg/l. In rainwater, mean concentrations are 0.3–1.7 µg/l. The earth’s crust contains an average cobalt concentration of 20–25 mg/kg. Near some anthropogenic sources, the concentration of cobalt in soil may be several hundred milligrams per kilogram.
The largest source of exposure to cobalt for the general population is the food supply. The estimated intake from food is 5–40 µg/day, most of which is inorganic cobalt. Occupational exposure to cobalt occurs in several industries. Levels of cobalt in tobacco range from <0.3 to 2.3 µg/g dry weight, and approximately 0.5% of this cobalt is present in mainstream smoke. Cobalt concentrations in coal, crude oil, fuel oil, and gasoline in the United States were found to be 5 mg/kg, 0.001–10 mg/kg, 0.03–0.3 mg/kg, and <0.1 mg/kg, respectively.
Inhalation of cobalt particles results in deposition in the upper and lower respiratory tract, where they can be retained or absorbed into the blood after dissolution or mechanically transferred to the gastrointestinal tract by mucociliary action and swallowing. Approximately 50% of the cobalt that enters the gastrointestinal tract will be absorbed. Cobalt absorption is increased among individuals who are iron deficient. Water-soluble forms are better absorbed than insoluble forms. Total body burden is estimated as 1.1–1.5 mg, with 0.11 mg in the liver.
No studies describe the distribution of cobalt in humans following ingestion, but animal studies indicate that cobalt is retained primarily in the liver. In a controlled human aerosol exposure study, 40% of the initial lung burden of cobalt oxide was retained at 6 months after exposure.
Atmospheric cobalt is associated with particulate matter principally to the extent to which particles of soil are dispersed by the wind. At unpolluted sites, mean cobalt levels are typically <1–2 ng/m3 (Smith & Carson, 1981; Hamilton, 1994). At the South Pole, the concentration of cobalt was 0.000 49 ± 0.000 15 ng/m3 in 1974–1975 (Maenhaut et al., 1979). In open-ocean environments, mean cobalt concentrations ranged from 0.0004 to 0.08 ng/m3 (Chester et al., 1991). As examples of cobalt concentrations in urban areas, the annual average cobalt concentration at Nahant, Massachusetts (near Boston), USA, in 1992–1993 was 1.7 ng/m3 (Golomb et al., 1997), whereas in Seville, Spain, during 1996 it was 0.5 ng/m3 (Espinosa et al., 2001). In southern Norway, the mean cobalt level was 0.10 ng/m3 in 1985–1986 (Amundsen et al., 1992). In source areas, cobalt concentrations may exceed 10 ng/m3. The highest average atmospheric cobalt concentration was recorded near a nickel refinery in Wales, at 48 ng/m3 (Smith & Carson, 1981).
Cobalt is a metal found naturally in soil, dust, and seawater. It is usually found in association with nickel. Cobalt and its salts have many uses, the table below shows some of the many sources of cobalt and where or how we may come into contact with them either at home or at work.
Home/personal sources Work sources
• Cobalt blue pigment in porcelain, glass, pottery, ceramics and enamels
• Cobalt blue in blue and green water colour paints and crayons
• Metal-plated objects
• Buckles
• Buttons
• Zippers
• Snaps
• Costume jewellery
• Utensils
• Tools
• Medical uses
• Vitamin B12 preparations for the treatment of anaemia
• Metal prostheses
• Dental plates
• Hair dyes; cobalt pigment produces light brown shades of hair
• Antiperspirant preparations
• Cobalt used as binding agent in hard metals to create drills, cutting tools, mechanical parts
• Cobalt naphthenate is a common catalyst in the manufacture of polyester resins
• Manufacture of cobalt-containing alloys
• As an oxidizing agent in automobile exhaust controls, in the rubber tire industry and in electroplating
• Cement industry; cement contains cobalt oxides
• Cobalt siccatives or driers are found in certain paints and varnishes
• Binding agent in the carbide industry
• Wet clay containing cobalt used by pottery workers
Reactions to contact with cobalt in an allergic individual include allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis. Vitamin B12 injections administered to allergic individuals may produce a red, tender and itchy area around the site of the injection. Oral ingestion of vitamin B12 is known to cause intractable hand eczema is some patients.
In many cases, allergic reactions are not caused solely by cobalt sensitisation. For example, metal objects almost always also contain nickel and in the cement industry nickel and chromium are present. Nickel and chromium are also potent sensitisers therefore; allergic reactions may not be due solely to cobalt but also to simultaneous specific allergy to nickel and chromium.
Nickel and cobalt are always found together in alloys and salts because it is too costly and impracticable to separate these two metals. Thus patch testing should always include both cobalt and nickel. Unfortunately, patch test results with cobalt and nickel can be confusing as it is extremely difficult to obtain pure solutions of each individual metal.
Intradermal testing with cobalt may also be performed to diagnose cobalt sensitivity.
Where avoidance is not achievable, several methods can be used to try to minimize exposure. Brief contact with metal devices is usually not a problem except in highly sensitive individuals.
In the workplace try to avoid exposure to cobalt, however this may not be practicable thus use measures to minimize exposure as described above. Identify potential sources of exposure using Material Safety Data Sheets; these are required for all chemicals and substances that you may come into contact with in the workplace. If you must use products that contain cobalt, wear gloves or other protective clothing to avoid contact with your skin.
Outside of the workplace, the best way to avoid cobalt allergy is by being aware of the possible sources of cobalt. Read product labels and do not use any that contain cobalt or any of its alternative names. If unsure ask your pharmacist for advice or a suitable alternative. Only use cosmetics, antiperspirants and hair dyes that you know do not contain cobalt. Avoid metallic costume jewellery. Sterling silver and platinum jewellery is usually tolerated.
Alert your doctor or dentist to the fact that you have an allergy to cobalt. Your dermatologist may have further specific advice, particularly if you are highly sensitive to cobalt.
Sources of Exposure to Cobalt
• Alloys
• Buttons
• Buckles
• Carbide
• Ceramics
• Cement
• Clay
• Cosmetics
• Costume jewellery
• Cutting tools
• Dental plates
• Detergents
• Flypapers
• Glass
• Hair dye
• Kitchen utensils
• Metal prostheses
• Oils
• Paints
• Pottery
• Polyester resin
• Printing inks
• Rock drills
• Rubber tires
• Tools
• Vitamin B12
• Zippers
Cobalt and its salts have high acute (short-term) toxicity on aquatic life. It also has high chronic (long-term) toxicity on aquatic life. There is not sufficient data to determine the acute or chronic toxicity of cobalt and its compounds on plants, birds or land animals. Cobalt and its compounds are highly persistent in water and the environment. Cobalt will bioaccumulate or concentrate in the tissues of fish.
Industrial emissions of cobalt and or cobalt compounds can produce elevated, but still low level concentrations in the atmosphere around the source. Because of its short life expectancy in the atmosphere cobalt and or cobalt compounds is expected to be confined to the local area within which it is emitted.
Cobalt and its compounds are expected to act like other particles in the atmosphere. The way they deposit in the local area will depend on the local wind and rain. They are expected to remain in the atmosphere from 5 to 15 days.
No national guidelines.
Common uses
Cobalt is a metal that occurs naturally in many different forms. Small amounts of it are found in most rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals. Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12, which is required for good health. The largest use of cobalt metal is to make alloys, which retain strength even when very hot. It is also used to help paint dry quickly. Cobalt is also used to make artificial body parts such as hip and knee joints. Cobalt carbonate is used in ceramics and as an animal feed supplement in trace amounts. Cobalt chloride is used as a humidity and water indicator, in electroplating, in the manufacture of vitamin B12, as a fertilizer and feed additive in trace amounts. Cobalt oxide is used in pigments for ceramics and glass, in fast drying paints and varnishes, in semiconductors, in enamel coatings on steel, and again as an animal feed additive in trace amounts. Cobalt sulfate is used in electroplating, in batteries, as a drying agent in inks and varnishes, in enamels, and ceramics, and as a feed and fertilizer additive.
Sources of emissions
• Industry sources
• Diffuse sources, and industry sources included in diffuse emissions data
• Natural sources
• Transport sources
• Consumer product that may contain cobalt and compounds
Industry sources
Cobalt is mainly emitted from sources where it is used in the production of steel and other alloys. It may be emitted to air, land or water from these sources. Automotive repair shops may be significant emitters (to air) of cobalt. It will also be emitted to air, land and water during the mining or refining of nickel, copper, silver, lead and iron.
Diffuse sources, and industry sources included in diffuse emissions data
Cobalt may be emitted to air, land or water from the manufacture, use or disposal of paints and varnishes. It may also be emitted to air, land or water from the manufacture, use or disposal of ceramic, inks, and enamels.
Natural sources
Cobalt is found in soil, dust, seawater, volcanic emissions, and smoke from forest and bush fires.
Transport sources
Small amounts of cobalt have been found in motor vehicle exhaust.
Consumer products that may contain cobalt and its compounds
Consumer products containing cobalt and its compounds include: vitamin B12, animal feeds and fertilisers, paints, varnish, enamels and ceramics. It is in metals used at high temperatures (e.g. some car parts).
Management of cobalt allergy
Identifying possible sources of contact and avoiding them is the only long-term management strategy for cobalt allergy. Where avoidance is not achievable, several methods can be used to try to minimize exposure. Brief contact with metal devices is usually not a problem except in highly sensitive individuals.
IARC - The International Agency for Research on Cancer (2005) evaluated the carcinogenic hazards of cobalt and cobalt compounds and concluded that:
•There is limited evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of cobalt metal with tungsten carbide.
•There is inadequate evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of cobalt metal without tungsten carbide.
•There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of cobalt sulfate.
•There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of cobalt metal powder.
•There is limited evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of metal alloys containing cobalt.
•There is inadequate evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of cobalt–aluminium–chromium spinel.
The overall evaluation was that:
•Cobalt metal with tungsten carbide is probably carcinogenic to humans.
•Cobalt metal without tungsten carbide is possibly carcinogenic to humans.
•Cobalt sulfate and other soluble cobalt(II) salts are possibly carcinogenic to humans
Methods to minimize cobalt exposure
•Use metal instruments such as scissors, kitchen utensils and combs that have plastic or wooden handle grips.
• If necessary, wear vinyl or rubber gloves to avoid contact (however, do not use for wet work as moisture increases the penetration of cobalt into the skin).
• Items such as keys can be coated with several layer of clear nail polish.
In the workplace, wear protective clothing and employ no-touch techniques
Comparison to other substances
NPI rank - The National Pollutant Inventory – Australia - approximately 400 substances were considered for inclusion on the NPI reporting list. A ranking and total hazard score was given based on health and environmental hazards and human and environmental exposure to the substance.
Cobalt and its compounds was ranked as 27 out of 400.
References
1. Abbasi SA, Nipaney PC, Soni R (1989) Environmental status of cobalt and its micro determination with 7-nitroso-8-hydroxyquinoline-5-sulfonic acid in waters, aquatic weeds and animal tissues. Analytical Letters, 22(1):225–235.
2. Abraham JL, Hunt A (1995) Environmental contamination by cobalt in the vicinity of a cemented tungsten carbide tool grinding plant. Environmental Research, 69:67–74.
3. ACGIH (1999) 1999 TLVs and BEIs. Threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents. Biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 184 pp.
4. Adam C, Baudin JP, Garnier-Laplace J (2001) Kinetics of 110mAg, 60Co, 137Cs and 54Mn bioaccumulation from water and depuration by the crustacean Daphnia magna. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 125:171–188.
5. Adriano DC (1986) Trace elements in the terrestrial environment. New York, NY, Springer-Verlag.
6. Afeworki S, Chandravanshi BS (1987) Simultaneous determination of iron(III) and cobalt(II) with N-phenylcinnamohydroxamic acid and thiocyanate by extraction and spectrophotometry. Mikrochimica Acta, 92:143–152.
7. Ahluwalia AS, Kaur M (1988) Effect of some heavy metal compounds on growth and differentiation in a blue-green and a green alga. Microbios, 53:37–45.
8. Albrecht A (2003) Validating riverine transport and speciation models using nuclear reactor-derived radiocobalt. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 66:295–307.
9. Aldenberg T, Slob W (1993) Confidence limits for hazardous concentrations based on logistically distributed NOEC toxicity data. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 25:48–63.
10. Alexander CS (1969) Cobalt and the heart. Annals of Internal Medicine, 70:411–413.
11.International Programme on Chemical Safety (1994) Assessing human health risks of chemicals: derivation of guidance values for health-based exposure limits. Geneva, World Health Organization (Environmental Health Criteria 170) (also available at http://www.who.int/pcs/).
12.Hanna RGM (1992) The level of heavy metals in the Red Sea after 50 years. Science of the Total Environment, 125:417–448.
13. Gibbs RJ (1994) Metals in the sediments along the Hudson River estuary. Environment International, 20(4):507–516.
14. Gladstones JS, Loneragan JF, Goodchild NA (1977) Field responses to cobalt and molybdenum by different legume species, with inferences on the role of cobalt in legume growth. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(4):619–628.
15. Francis CW, Davis EC, Goyert JC (1985) Plant uptake of trace elements from coal gasification ashes. Journal of Environmental Quality, 14(4):561–569.
16. Donaldson JD (1986) Cobalt in the environment. In: Proceedings of the first congress on cobalt and the environment, Toronto, Ontario, 2–3 April 1986. Guildford, Surrey, Cobalt Development Institute, pp.1–21.
17. Donaldson JD, Clark SJ, Grimes SM (1986) Cobalt in medicine, agriculture and environment. Guildford, Surrey, Cobalt Development Institute.
18. Dalvi RR, Robbins TJ (1978) Comparative studies on the effect of cadmium, cobalt, lead, and selenium on hepatic microsomal monooxygenase enzymes and glutathione levels in mice. Journal of Environmental Pathology and Toxicology, 1:601–607.
lunes, 7 de marzo de 2011
Time for Exhibitions
Like every year once we start leaving winter time, Cevisama break into with the first exhibition of the year, after the first one a long list of ceramic exhibitions all around the world come to us.
In this blog as part of International Ceramic Industry we're going to share information about those exhibitions with our point of view for those ones that we're visiting or the point of friends that get the opportunity of being there. As you know we're here for giving as much information as possible from International Ceramic Industry and our objective is creating a blog useful for all of you.
In this blog as part of International Ceramic Industry we're going to share information about those exhibitions with our point of view for those ones that we're visiting or the point of friends that get the opportunity of being there. As you know we're here for giving as much information as possible from International Ceramic Industry and our objective is creating a blog useful for all of you.
UNICERA 2011
Unicera Estambul
Feria de cerámica, baño y cocina
Unicera es una organización internacional de cerámica, baño y cocina, donde justo la industria cerámica turca se reúne una vez al año en conjunto la promoción de los productos más nuevos y las tecnologías de la industria. Baldosas de cerámica, loza vitrificada, piscinas, saunas, grifería, baño y muebles de cocina y accesorios y publicaciones relativas a estos se exhiben. Unicera no es sólo un comercial, sino también como comunicación, información y una plataforma de transmisión de la cultura
Feria de cerámica, baño y cocina
Unicera es una organización internacional de cerámica, baño y cocina, donde justo la industria cerámica turca se reúne una vez al año en conjunto la promoción de los productos más nuevos y las tecnologías de la industria. Baldosas de cerámica, loza vitrificada, piscinas, saunas, grifería, baño y muebles de cocina y accesorios y publicaciones relativas a estos se exhiben. Unicera no es sólo un comercial, sino también como comunicación, información y una plataforma de transmisión de la cultura
jueves, 3 de febrero de 2011
Indian Ceramics 2011
The future of ceramics in India.
Between 15th and 17th of March 2011 in Ahmedabad in India starts Indian Ceramics 2011, Indian exhibition for ceramics and the future of ceramics for incoming 15 years. Hope to meet all of you there, as we already now the future of ceramics is out of Europe and we can do nothing against it.
CEVISAMA 2011 8-11February
It's back!! again when February arrives, it's time for Cevisama. This year you will find the most interesting designs and evolutions in ceramic industry.
From our side we'll be participating in the exhibition and you can contact us for visiting our factory in every moment you need, we're here for giving you the best service.
jueves, 26 de agosto de 2010
THE TOP CERAMIC TILE MANUFACTURER IN VOLUME & VALUE 2009
On the following document and continuing with the line that we draft yesterday, we are publishing the results of our survey of the largest world ceramic groups, a survey that after just three years has become an eagerly-awaited appointment
for all players in the sector (companies, institutes, funds and opinion makers) who make regular use of the data.
To further improve the survey, this year we are presenting the results for 2009 with rankings according to two different criteria.
Along with the ranking by production output - which continues to be the only suitable criterion for making an objective comparison between companies that differ enormously in terms of size, geographical location and product
quality - we have added a ranking by value. The following are a few points to facilitate interpretation of the tables.
For groups operating in a number of different areas of the ceramic industry, the published turnover data refer to the group turnover and therefore include revenues generated not just from the production and sale of tiles but also from
activities in other segments such as sanitaryware, tableware, bathroom furnishing and raw materials, or even direct distribution (as indicated in the column for sectors of activity).
For the sake of uniformity we have excluded shares of turnover generated by other group businesses. For this reason the ranking by value does not allow a direct
comparison to be made between companies with a number of business activities and companies that operate solely in the tile segment.
For the same reason, the two rankings are not intended to provide a direct comparison between volumes and values (and even less to obtain estimates of average selling prices for each group), but to offer the most comprehensive
overall picture possible of the various players in the global arena.
The two rankings naturally include different companies: the top 25 producers by volume are not necessarily the top 25 by value.
RAK, Ceramica Cleopatra and Marazzi Group feature amongst
the top five groups in both rankings, albeit in different positions
by volume and value. The rest of the rankings are much more heterogeneous.
The Chinese companies are not included in the rankings as they
provide only figures for production capacity, although the top
10 are listed in a separate table. Asia accounts for the largest
volumes.
In 2009 the ranking by volume of the largest groups, which together
account for around 15-20% of world production, maintained a
more or less uniform distribution in all continents. In other words, the
ranking for the largest groups faithfully reflects the geographical
location of world ceramic tile production.
The biggest manufacturing presence is in Asia, where 9 of the 25 ranked groups are located.
The Asian producers are also the ones that have been less affected by the fall in production triggered by the international crisis. Europe (including Turkey) is in second place with 8 groups, followed by the Americas with 6 and Africa
with 2 groups. The common factor shared by the groups topping the ranking of world production is internationalisation of production given that the majority have factories located in more than one country.
Italy dominates in terms of value This year’s new feature is the ranking based on turnover generated by the largest world groups.
This classification reveals a very different geographical distribution
to that obtained from the ranking by volume. The groups that generate the biggest turnovers are mainly located in Europe or in any case in mature market where
consumers are more inclined to purchase products with greater added value.
Italian companies dominate the ranking and form the largest national group.
These companies operate almost exclusively in the field of tile production and in spite of having outputs of below 24 million sq.m/year nonetheless generate turnovers that reflect average selling prices - and therefore product quality
- well above those of many foreign competitors. The ranking is topped by the Roca Group (although the majority of its consolidated turnover is in the sanitaryware
segment).
Only three Asian groups feature in the ranking. The ranking does not include groups for which 2009 turnovers are not yet available. To provide as comprehensive a
picture as possible, below the table we have provided the 2008 turnover figures for groups that would in any case have ranked amongst the top 25 world groups in terms of
value.
miércoles, 25 de agosto de 2010
THE TOP CERAMIC TILE MANUFACTURER IN VOLUME 2009
In the present document we attach the top 20 manufacturers of ceramic tiles during 2009, that's the original and complete list where you can find the name of the company, the volume produced and the potential production capacity.
As you can see the European companies are leaving their position to new growing up countries as UAE, Egypt or Indonesia and Thailand. In this list we can see the power of Mid Orient in the production of ceramic tiles.
Following days we're going to share with all of you the same list for the most important producers in value, where European companies still have the power, even we can see one Spanish company in top 3, Porcelanosa...
Ceramic World Review unveils the rankings of the world’s largest ceramic tile and sanitaryware producers
Rak group, headquartered in the United Arab Emirates and with branches in numerous countries including Italy, tops the 2009 ranking of the largest world tile producing groups in terms of output volumes at 115 million square metres. Next come the Thai group Siam Cement Group (108 million sq.m), known by the brand name Cotto, and the Egypt-based Ceramica Cleopatra Group (99 million sq.m) which also has a branch in Bologna.
Marazzi Group takes fourth position with 90 million sq.m. The ranking also includes the Concorde Group with an annual production capacity of 50 million sq.m and the Iris Group with an output last year of 37.5 million sq.m.
The ranking for the largest groups faithfully reflects the geographical location of world ceramic tile production, with Asian concerns making up the largest group closely followed by European and American producers.
The ranking based on turnover is very different. The majority of players are European, with Italian companies making up the largest national group (8 out of 24). Marazzi Group is in second position with 801 million euro, surpassed only by the Spanish group Roca, which however generates a significant share of its turnover through the sale of ceramic sanitaryware. The ranking also includes Panaria Group, Cooperativa Ceramica d'Imola, Casalgrande Padana, Florim, Ceramiche Ricchetti, Granitifiandre and Emilceramica. And although the 2009 figures for Concorde Group and Iris Group had not yet been released when the magazine went to press, these two are certainly amongst the top 25 world groups.
By contrast, Italy has only a small presence in the ranking of world groups in the ceramic sanitaryware sector, where the market is controlled by large multinationals headed by the Spanish group Roca, which last year produced 30.5 million pieces. Next come Ideal Standard and the American company Kohler with around 21 million pieces. In 2009 Italian sanitaryware production topped 5.2 million pieces, mainly manufactured in the Civita Castellana district in the province of Viterbo
Marazzi Group takes fourth position with 90 million sq.m. The ranking also includes the Concorde Group with an annual production capacity of 50 million sq.m and the Iris Group with an output last year of 37.5 million sq.m.
The ranking for the largest groups faithfully reflects the geographical location of world ceramic tile production, with Asian concerns making up the largest group closely followed by European and American producers.
The ranking based on turnover is very different. The majority of players are European, with Italian companies making up the largest national group (8 out of 24). Marazzi Group is in second position with 801 million euro, surpassed only by the Spanish group Roca, which however generates a significant share of its turnover through the sale of ceramic sanitaryware. The ranking also includes Panaria Group, Cooperativa Ceramica d'Imola, Casalgrande Padana, Florim, Ceramiche Ricchetti, Granitifiandre and Emilceramica. And although the 2009 figures for Concorde Group and Iris Group had not yet been released when the magazine went to press, these two are certainly amongst the top 25 world groups.
By contrast, Italy has only a small presence in the ranking of world groups in the ceramic sanitaryware sector, where the market is controlled by large multinationals headed by the Spanish group Roca, which last year produced 30.5 million pieces. Next come Ideal Standard and the American company Kohler with around 21 million pieces. In 2009 Italian sanitaryware production topped 5.2 million pieces, mainly manufactured in the Civita Castellana district in the province of Viterbo
RAK CERAMICS world's largest ceramic tile manufacturer 2009
UAE. RAK Ceramics has announced that it has been officially recognised as the world's largest ceramic tile manufacturer by the Ceramic World Review, the best known and most widely circulated international magazine devoted to ceramic tile and sanitaryware production technologies.
RAK Ceramics dominated the rankings of the top 25 ceramic tile manufacturers in 2009 with a total production output of 115 million square metres from 15 manufacturing facilities located in six countries.
RAK Ceramics further revealed that it remains in a strong position to boost its current production capacity of 117 million square metres as expansion programs are underway to cater to new markets in different parts of the world.
In 2008, RAK Ceramics was ranked in fourth position with a production output of 106 million square metres and through its well-executed, long-term strategic plans, RAK Ceramics has expanded and increased its production facility even during the current economic slowdown.
Dr. Khater Massaad, CEO, RAK Ceramics, said: "Being recognised as the biggest tile manufacturer in the world underlines RAK Ceramics' unmatched ability to consistently satisfy the demands of customers in terms of product quality and quantity.
These distinctions from the Ceramic World Review likewise validate the success of our strategy to target and strengthen our presence in high-growth markets around the world, cementing RAK Ceramics' status as a premier global brand and the number one choice for all types of ceramic tiling requirements."
"The Ceramic World Review has noted that the internationalisation of production has been a common trend among companies that have figured prominently on the list. In this regard, we remain strongly committed to pursue aggressive expansion programs in new international markets and maintain our status as the undisputed global leader in the ceramic tile industry," added Dr. Massaad.
RAK Ceramics produces ceramic tiles, sanitary ware and tableware through its worldwide production and distribution facilities which collectively employ a workforce of 15,000 people. RAK Ceramics pointed out that the establishment of production plants in different countries has been a key factor in the company's highly successful globally focused marketing strategy, wherein up to 74 per cent of products are exported to over 150 countries.
RAK Ceramics is a US$1 billion global conglomerate in the ceramic industry, offering a product portfolio comprising over 8,000 designs in ceramic tiles, Gres Porcellanato, and several models in sanitaryware.
The company continues to be a global pioneer in the world of ceramics through innovative products such as the RAK SLIM, a new brand of 4.5-millimetre thick tile that sets new industry benchmarks in thickness, strength, cost and ease of use.
RAK Ceramics dominated the rankings of the top 25 ceramic tile manufacturers in 2009 with a total production output of 115 million square metres from 15 manufacturing facilities located in six countries.
RAK Ceramics further revealed that it remains in a strong position to boost its current production capacity of 117 million square metres as expansion programs are underway to cater to new markets in different parts of the world.
In 2008, RAK Ceramics was ranked in fourth position with a production output of 106 million square metres and through its well-executed, long-term strategic plans, RAK Ceramics has expanded and increased its production facility even during the current economic slowdown.
Dr. Khater Massaad, CEO, RAK Ceramics, said: "Being recognised as the biggest tile manufacturer in the world underlines RAK Ceramics' unmatched ability to consistently satisfy the demands of customers in terms of product quality and quantity.
These distinctions from the Ceramic World Review likewise validate the success of our strategy to target and strengthen our presence in high-growth markets around the world, cementing RAK Ceramics' status as a premier global brand and the number one choice for all types of ceramic tiling requirements."
"The Ceramic World Review has noted that the internationalisation of production has been a common trend among companies that have figured prominently on the list. In this regard, we remain strongly committed to pursue aggressive expansion programs in new international markets and maintain our status as the undisputed global leader in the ceramic tile industry," added Dr. Massaad.
RAK Ceramics produces ceramic tiles, sanitary ware and tableware through its worldwide production and distribution facilities which collectively employ a workforce of 15,000 people. RAK Ceramics pointed out that the establishment of production plants in different countries has been a key factor in the company's highly successful globally focused marketing strategy, wherein up to 74 per cent of products are exported to over 150 countries.
RAK Ceramics is a US$1 billion global conglomerate in the ceramic industry, offering a product portfolio comprising over 8,000 designs in ceramic tiles, Gres Porcellanato, and several models in sanitaryware.
The company continues to be a global pioneer in the world of ceramics through innovative products such as the RAK SLIM, a new brand of 4.5-millimetre thick tile that sets new industry benchmarks in thickness, strength, cost and ease of use.
martes, 27 de julio de 2010
INDIAN CERAMIC INDUSTRY
Indian Ceramic Industry Ceramic tile industry can be classified into three segments – wall tiles segment, floor tiles segment and vitrified & porcelain tiles segment. At present, in India the market share of these segments are 42%, 46% and 12% respectively.
Ceramic tiles are produced both in organised as well as in unorganised sector. In India, share of organised sector is around 55% of total production. The organised
sector is characterised by the existence of a few large players, such as, H & R Johnson, Kajaria Ceramics, Bell Ceramics, SPL, Spartek and Murudeshwar
Ceramics to name a few. In the domestic market of ceramic tiles H & R Johnson is the leader followed by Kajaria Ceramics, with market shares of 21% and 13%, respectively.
Global Scenario
There are three major regions in the world, namely, Asia, Latin America and European Union (EU), that produce and export ceramic tiles in bulk. In 2002, they had jointly produced more than 87% of the global output. World production of ceramic tiles was 5904 million sq.mt. in 2002. China was the largest producer with a total production of 2100 million sq.mt. Spain and Italy were the 2nd and 3rd largest
producers with production of 651 million sq.mt. and 606 million sq.mt. respectively. India ranks at 8th position with production of 150 million sq.mt., which is around 2.5% of global production. In terms of exports, Italy ranks 1st with an export volume of 438 million Sq. mt. in 2002. Spain is the 2nd largest exporter with an export volume of 356 million sq.mt. Italy and Spain produce the best quality tiles in the world and export in large volumes to USA and European countries. In 2002,
China became the third largest exporter of ceramic tiles with an export volume of 100 mn sq mt.
In recent years, China’s export has increased at a much fasteRpace than others and the country has registered an export volume of 100 million sq. mt. from a level of 24 million sq. mt. over just 3 years (2000 – 2002). In terms of imports, USA is the largest importing country with a share of 13.6% of global import. Germany and France are 2nd and 3rd largest importers of ceramic tiles with 8.1% and 7.5% share of world import, respectively.
India in the world trade
The value of global ceramic product exports (including tiles, sanitary wares and crockery items) was around US $ 19385 million in 2002. India’s export value was around US $ 100 million, which is only a minuscule in global export. India majorly exported to countries, such as, Saudi Arabia, UK, UAE and Sri Lanka. The value of India’s import was around US $ 50 million in 2002 and India mainly imported from
China, Germany and UK. Thus, the value of India’s total trade of ceramic products was US $ 150 million, which is only 0.77 % of the global ceramic trade. To increase India’s participation in the global trade, recently a Market Access Initiative has been
undertaken by CAPEXIL, which aims to increase export of select group of ceramic products to certain markets such as the USA, Mexico and the UK. The products that have been identified under the MAI project include ceramic insulators, ceramic building wares including tiles and sanitary wares, ceramic household articles and advanced ceramics.
Analysis of India’s export potential
In this study, an attempt has been made to analyse India’s export opportunities for select group of ceramic products. Four different products are identified, namely unglazed ceramic tiles, glazed
ceramic tiles, ceramic household articles and ornamental ceramic products. For each of these
products, price competitiveness was analysed in different markets, which include the markets of
leading importers of ceramic products as well as the major export markets for India.
Unglazed ceramic tiles: Top three importers of unglazed ceramic tiles are USA, Germany and France. USA mainly imports from Italy, Mexico and Spain. Italy alone supplies around 80% of US import requirements of unglazed ceramic tiles. India’s export to USA is negligible. However, with regard to unit price, India is cheaper than European countries and therefore there is a scope to increase exports to USA.
Germany is the second largest importer of unglazed ceramic tiles and the country mainly imports from Italy, Netherlands and France. More than 80% of Germany’s import of unglazed ceramic tiles comes from Italy and Netherlands. India is not a major exporter to Germany and thus India’s market share is negligible. France, which is the third largest importer of unglazed ceramic tiles has mainly imported from Italy, Spain and Germany. More than 70% of import by France comes from Italy alone. India does not export large volumes of unglazed tiles to France. However, in terms of unit price, Indian tiles are much cheaper than tiles imported by France from European countries.So, there is scope to increase export to France. India’s major export marketsconsist of Saudi Arabia, UK andSri Lanka. Around 30% of India’s unglazed tiles (in valueterms) are exported to these countries. In UK, India’s rank was 15 as a major
source country partner for import of unglazed ceramic tiles, in 2002.
UK mainly imported from within the EU region, especially from countries like Italy, Spain and Germany. With regard to average unit price, India is more competitive than countries such
as, Italy, Spain, Germany and Greece. So, attempt could be made to increase India’s export
to UK. In Saudi Arabia, India is ranked at ninth largest source country for import of unglazed ceramic tiles. Major suppliers to Saudi Arabia are Italy, Spain, Germany and Greece. India is not very price competitive in this market. Sri Lanka is another leadingmarket for India. In this market, India is the third largest exporter of unglazed tiles. In Sri Lanka, Italy is the largest exporter followed by China. India’s unit price in this market is relatively lower compared to Italy but higher than China.
Glazed ceramic tiles: Major importers of glazed ceramic tiles are USA, France and Germany.
USA mainly imports from Italy, Spain and Mexico. Italy alone supplied more than 44% of US
import requirements of glazed ceramic tiles. Spain and Mexico supplied around 20% and 11%,
respectively. India’s export to USA is negligible (around 0.2% of US imports). With regard to unit price, India is cheaper than Italy but costlier than Spain and Mexico.
France, which is the second largest importer of glazed ceramic tiles, imports largely from Italy and Spain. Italy is the largest exporter, supplying 58% of total import of glazed tiles by France. Spain and Germany are the second and third largest source countries with 24%and 4% shares respectively. India’s export to France is negligible. As regards unit price, the European
countries have supplied more or less on similar price to France (around US $ 600 per tonne).
India’s unit price in France is more competitive (US $ 400 per tonne) than European exporters and thus there is a scope to increase India’s share in the French market. Germany is the third largest importer of glazed ceramic tiles and the country mainly imports from Italy, Spain and France. More than 61% of Germany’s import comes from Italy alone. India is not a significant supplier to Germany and thus India’s market share is negligible. India’s major export markets consist of Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka and Qatar. Around 80% of India’s glazed tiles export(in value terms) goes to these fourcountries. For Saudi Arabia, Indiawas the fifth largest exporter,supplying around 5% of its total import requirements in 2002.Other major exporters include Spain, UAE, Italy and China. With regard to average unit price, India’s price was US $ 200 per tonne, which is second lowest after China. Thus, there is scopeto increase India’s market share further in Saudi Arabia.
In Sri Lanka, India was the largest exporting country, supplying more than 41% of its import requirements in 2002. Other major exporters include Indonesia, China, UAE and Thailand. With
regard to average unit price, India’s price was US $ 2.4 per sq.mt. which is second lowest after
China. However, Sri Lanka is not a very large importer of glazed tiles and therefore not much scope for Indian exporters to penetrate in this market further. In Qatar, India is ranked at fourth largest source country for import of glazed ceramic tiles. Other major exporters are Italy, Spain, UAE and China. Currently, India supplies around 10% of import by Qatar, whereas Italy, Spain and UAE jointly exports more than 70%. However, among all the major exporting countries in Qatar, India’s unit price is the lowest. Hence, there is considerable opportunity to increase India’s export to Qatar.
Ceramic House Hold Articles:
The top three importers of ceramic household products are USA, Germany and Japan.China is the largest exporter to USA, supplying around 56% ofUS imports. Germany is thesecond largest importer of ceramic household articles and mainlyimports from Czech Republic and China. Japan, which is the third largest importer of ceramichousehold articles, imports largely from China, UK and Germany. More than 70% of import by Japan comes from these countries.
India’s exports to all thesecountries are negligible.
UK is the largest market for India’s ceramic household productexports. Around 60% of India’s
export goes to UK alone. In the UK market, India’s rank as major source country partner for import of ceramic household articles in 2002 was 11. UK mainly imported from Portugal, Thailand, and China. With regard to average unit price, India’s price is US $ 2700 per tonne as compared to the unit price range of US $ 1400 per tonne of China and US $ 1700 per tone of
Portugal. It was observed that India is not a large exporter of ceramic household products and Indian products are not price competitive in the international market, which is dominated by low priced Chinese products.
Ornamental ceramic Products:
The top three importers of ornamental ceramic products are USA, Germany and Hong Kong. USA majorly imported from China, Spain and Italy. Chinaalone supplied more than 57% of US imports. Germany is the second largest importer of ornamental ceramic products and the country has mainly imported from China, Vietnam andPortugal. Around 44% of Germany’s import of ornamental ceramic products comes from China alone. Hong Kong is the
third largest importer of ornamental ceramic products. More than 95% of import in Hong Kong comes from China.
India’s export to all these major import markets are negligibleand also India’s price is higher than the price of Chinese products. India is not a major exporter of ornamental ceramic products. The largest export destination forIndia’s ornamental ceramic exports is USA, which accounts for around 22% of export from India. However, the share is negligible (only 0.1%) compared to total US import of this product.China is the largest exporter of ornamental ceramic products and their price is the most competitive in the world.
Some Concerns For some time now, India ceramic tile manufacturers are besieged with the problem of low margin and falling profitability.According to industry sources,one of the reasons behind this scenario is the dumping of vitrifiedtiles into Indian market by
countries such as China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and UAE. It is estimated that
during the year 2003-04, nearly Rs. 100 crore worth of imported tiles were dumped in India.
Dumping has become a major issue with China’s entry into the Bangkok Agreement, which was
developed with a view to promote free trade among South East Asian countries. Entry of China
in to the Bangkok Agreement would result in large import from China, as under this agreement
Chinese goods would attract a duty of 10% as against 15% dutyon import from other countries. A
recent industry estimate suggests that in the present year the value of dumping from China might increase to Rs. 300 crores.
This is expected to reduce the price of ceramic tiles to a great extent and therefore dwindle the profitability of domestic producers further. Another major problem of the industry is the rising cost of manufacturing due to increase in prices of raw materials such as
zirconium and titanium. The recent petroleum price hike has also affected the industry, though
in an indirect manner. Because of the substantial bulk of the material, transportation of ceramic tiles accrues very high freight element. Rise in petroleum prices increase this transportation cost substantially. However, this could not be passed on to the consumers due to stiff competition from China, UAE and some East Asiancountries and this has reduced the
margin.
Future Outlook:
In recent years, Indian ceramic industry is witnessing encouraging trends in domestic demand, powered by sustained rise in housing construction and booming hospitality industry. The
industry has also laid greater thrust on cost control measures, capacity expansion, exploration of newer markets and introduction of newer designs. All these measures are expected to facilitate better growth in the industry’s revenues and profitability in future. Prospect of ceramic industry
heavily depends on construction activities. In India, the construction sector is expected to do well mainly due to the fiscal incentives given to the infrastructure development. The housing sector is also expected to grow because of the low interestrates on housing loans. The future
outlook of the industry also seemsto be positive because of the thrust on advanced ceramics, which has high potential in global markets. These products find application in electronics,
automotive and aerospace industries. The global market for advanced ceramics is growing and countries like Japan and USA dominate this segment. Of late, Indian ceramic industry is focusing
on advanced ceramic products to step up exports. The thrust on advanced ceramics, along with
the booming construction activities, is expected to usher in a bright prospect for the ceramic industry in India.
Publication is available at:
Dharmendra Sachan
Chief Knowledge Officer
EXPORT-IMPORT BANK OF INDIA
Centre One Building, Floor 21,
World Trade Centre Complex,
Cuffe Parade, Mumbai - 400 005, India.
Phone : +91 22 2218 2837
Fax : +91 22 2218 3070
E-mail : dharmendra@eximbankindia.com
Website : www.eximbankindia.com
lunes, 10 de mayo de 2010
FABRICACION ESPAÑOLA DE AZULEJOS 2009
En el siguiente articulo adjuntamos los datos provisionales de fabricacion española de azulejos durante el año 2009. Este año y contradiciendo lo publicado y anunciado por algunas instituciones la industria española de fabricacion de baldosas ceramicas ha bajado de la barrera de los 400 millones de metros, habiendo quedado en algo mas de 324 millones de m2. Y por lo tanto y con toda seguridad habiendo sido relegada al 5º o 6º puesto en el ranking de fabricacion mundial.
De este modo una vez mas se va consolidando la idea del hundimiento total de la industria española de fabricacion de azulejos, siendo que nuestro pais hasta hace dos años ocupaba el segundo lugar del ranking tan solo por detras de China.
Estos datos han sido obtenidos de la pagina web oficial de ASCER, donde por cierto, no se publican datos comparativos de la industria española con la de otros paises, cuando años atras se mostraba con orgullo la comparativa de la fabricacion española por delante de la italiana, brasileña o turca... ¿por que sera?...
De este modo una vez mas se va consolidando la idea del hundimiento total de la industria española de fabricacion de azulejos, siendo que nuestro pais hasta hace dos años ocupaba el segundo lugar del ranking tan solo por detras de China.
Estos datos han sido obtenidos de la pagina web oficial de ASCER, donde por cierto, no se publican datos comparativos de la industria española con la de otros paises, cuando años atras se mostraba con orgullo la comparativa de la fabricacion española por delante de la italiana, brasileña o turca... ¿por que sera?...
Evolucion de la fabricacion de baldosas ceramicas
Fabricacion de baldosas ceramicas en el mundo. Ranking 2008.
Segun un reciente informe elaborado por la patronal azulejera brasileña, Anfacer, la industria cerámica castellonense pierde fuerza en ambos aspectos. Este informe relega a las empresas castellonenses, por primera vez en las últimas dos décadas, a la cuarta posición del ranking de los mayores fabricantes del mundo de recubrimientos cerámicos, y le otorga medalla de bronce en exportación.
El citado estudio sitúa al sector español por detrás de China, Brasil e, incluso, Italia, y a muy pocos metros cuadrados de la emergente India. Según las estimaciones de Anfacer, el sector español produjo en 2008 495,2 millones de metros cuadrados, una cifra que coincide plenamente con la divulgada por la patronal azulejera Ascer en su página web.
China, Brasil e India registraron nuevos crecimientos, y sólo perdieron volumen de fabricación los productores europeos. China pasó de los 3.200 millones de metros cuadrados de 2007 a los 3.360 millones de metros cuadrados del año pasado, mientras que Brasil aumentaba su producción y sumaba 713,4 millones de metros cuadrados en 2008. Por último, India que en 2005 fabricaba la modesta cifra de 298 millones de metros cuadrados, produjo 385 millones de metros cuadrados en 2007 para pisarle los talones a España con las cifras de 2008: 404 millones de metros cuadrados.
España cerró 2008 con 495,2 millones de metros cuadrados e Italia, el referente mundial, también cae, pero lo hace de manera más moderada: en 2006 producía 569 millones de metros cuadrados, y en los ejercicios siguientes fabricó 563 y 527 millones de metros cuadrados, respectivamente.
Segun un reciente informe elaborado por la patronal azulejera brasileña, Anfacer, la industria cerámica castellonense pierde fuerza en ambos aspectos. Este informe relega a las empresas castellonenses, por primera vez en las últimas dos décadas, a la cuarta posición del ranking de los mayores fabricantes del mundo de recubrimientos cerámicos, y le otorga medalla de bronce en exportación.
El citado estudio sitúa al sector español por detrás de China, Brasil e, incluso, Italia, y a muy pocos metros cuadrados de la emergente India. Según las estimaciones de Anfacer, el sector español produjo en 2008 495,2 millones de metros cuadrados, una cifra que coincide plenamente con la divulgada por la patronal azulejera Ascer en su página web.
China, Brasil e India registraron nuevos crecimientos, y sólo perdieron volumen de fabricación los productores europeos. China pasó de los 3.200 millones de metros cuadrados de 2007 a los 3.360 millones de metros cuadrados del año pasado, mientras que Brasil aumentaba su producción y sumaba 713,4 millones de metros cuadrados en 2008. Por último, India que en 2005 fabricaba la modesta cifra de 298 millones de metros cuadrados, produjo 385 millones de metros cuadrados en 2007 para pisarle los talones a España con las cifras de 2008: 404 millones de metros cuadrados.
España cerró 2008 con 495,2 millones de metros cuadrados e Italia, el referente mundial, también cae, pero lo hace de manera más moderada: en 2006 producía 569 millones de metros cuadrados, y en los ejercicios siguientes fabricó 563 y 527 millones de metros cuadrados, respectivamente.
16th World Ceramic Forum
The 16th World Ceramic Forum held recently in China Taiwan to participate in the forum are China (including Taiwan), Brazil, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Spain, Japan, the United States and other ceramic tile producers, representatives of almost occupied Ceramic production in the world as a whole 80% of the share. Delegates to explore the theme of the Forum include the world's consumption and production and consumption trends, the impact of financial crisis for the ceramics industry.
In 2008, the world's ceramic tile production rose to 8.5 billion square meters, annual production is expected to 2009, and 2008 unchanged. Ceramic tile consumption in the Asian region to maintain a good upward trend, while Europe, Japan and the United States of these the world's top 10 economies from 2008 began a gradual downward trend in consumption of ceramic tiles. As the impact of financial crisis, this year declines in sales of ceramic tile in some countries as much as 20% ~ 50%. So far, China, Brazil, Italy and Spain have always dominated the world's ceramic tile production in the first few big countries. Representatives of other countries and regions as well as data reporting point of view, the situation in China a single good, Italy, Spain, more powerful industry hit the United States is full of future market expectations.
China is entering the recovery status of the whole industry
Forum Chinese government increased domestic demand and China's vast rural market pull, the Chinese construction industry in a crisis for the nation's adjustment and upgrading, the annual output of more than 6 billion square meters, exports only 670 million square meters, 88% of the domestic market, imports market share of 0.06%, the product price has risen too.
Product structure, the ceramic tile 64%, interior glazed tiles 25, 7% of stoneware tiles, stoneware and fine stoneware tiles 4%, the low-end products accounted for more than 80%; first half of 2009, the whole industry into the "revival" state, national industrial transfer and distribution once again started; decline in exports and domestic sales increase; production costs decreased, corporate profits fell in the morning and synchronization; the whole industry, basically through the most difficult times in March and gradually into the recovery phase began.
Of energy, industry, annual consumption of about 150 million tons of mineral raw materials, basic local materials, the Chinese government energy-saving emission reduction policies and export taxes reduced to 8% of the policies to help Chinese enterprises to ride out the storm played a role, the Chinese government promulgated a series of environmental policy, so that China Building Ceramic Industry more concerned about environmental and social responsibility.
India is projected 7% growth
While India affected by economic crisis, 24% of the factories to stop the kiln, the number of unemployed reached 40000, but has maintained GDP growth of India, India housing industries and pillar industries, IT has continued to maintain growth, future The Government plans to increase by about 2,000 million units of housing construction. Ceramic tile production increased by 20% last year to reach 390 million square meters. At present, India's per capita consumption of ceramic tiles from 0.36 square meters, there is still much room for development. Marketing point of view, yield 70% reliance on the domestic market. In the output of which accounted for 43% of tiles and other floor tiles accounted for 40 percent and imports 2,450 million square meters, export 1,400 million square meters. 2008 sales of view, the international market increased by 11%, imports increased 24%. This year, the domestic market is estimated that 7% growth.
German sales profits encountered unprecedented difficulties
On the whole German tile production is shrinking year by year, last year remained at 6,500 million square meters. In 2009 has dropped by 17 ~ 20%, sales profits were encountered unprecedented difficulties.
Italy is expected to reach 22 percent decline in output this year
Over the past two years by the Italian Federation of the continuous integration into the ceramics related to many of the chapters have joined together to form a more powerful system for face-degree ceramic industry economic crisis. In respect of the current domestic form, is expected to Italy this year, production decreased by about 22% to reduce the roughly 4,000 million square meters, sales are expected to decline to about 18% of approximately equivalent to 4 billion euros. In terms of investment decreased 8% to about 7,500 million euros, but the contrast from the turnover and sales terms, the investment rate was maintained at a proportion of the past. Probably accounted for about 15% of sales. From overseas exports, the Italian or to maintain the highest average price, with an average of 10 euros per square meter of ceramic tiles, while ranking second in Spain is 8 euros, while the output of superpower China 4 euros. From the demand perspective, the Italian market fundamentals remain unchanged, because the Italian people would prefer to use ceramic products.
Spanish ceramic tile industry output will decline every year
2009 is expected to be even more severe situation, the situation is even worse than in 2008. Spanish industry is now facing a double crisis: the financial crisis and the Spanish real estate market surplus. At present, the ceramic tile industry, the number of unemployed persons is probably around 8,000, the output will decrease under the 2009 and 2007 to do more, the output decreased by 55%, sales decreased by 37%. Apparent decline in domestic demand due to the market, imports also declined. As the impact of financial crisis, exports were restricted, while the exchange rate issue also affected the export sector.
Indonesia's exports in recent years, the domestic political situation in Indonesia is very economy has stabilized, the cabinet selection completed this year. Brick's production of 3.5 million square meters, there are 250 million daily-use porcelain, sanitary ware 4.5 million, the entire output value 800 million U.S. dollars. Main export countries are the United States, Australia and Europe, these three countries. However, due to the economic crisis, which three countries are both affected by more serious, neighboring countries, an annual output of 1,900 million square meters, Malaysia, Thailand, 6,300 million square meters, Vietnam and Indonesia, has remained flat, so not very recent years, the export boom.
Brazil had to rely on the domestic market
From the Brazilian point of view, a decrease of 8 percent of employees, production, a decrease of 11%. Brazil's domestic market demand increased by 7%, 13% reduction in overseas markets. Brazil's main export countries are the United States ceramic tile, but sales fell 63% last year, while exports to Latin American countries such as the products also reduced a lot. Imports increased by 23%, and in this 23%, almost all imports come from Chinese products. 3.9 square meters per capita consumption of ceramic tiles, the ceramic industry from the Brazilian point of view, or to rely on the domestic market.
The United States has gone through the most difficult times
The U.S. market has been the most difficult times, from the first half of 2009 data, the tile consumption of 650 million square feet, and only half of the same period in 2008, and now is picking up. Now the housing market began to rebound in October compared with second-hand housing ring up 10.1%, sales of 6.1 million units, real estate, generally as a leading indicator of building materials, from this point of view, is more optimistic about the future market. The U.S. market mainly depend on imports. From the global production trends, to 07-08 from all major producing countries, the changes in ceramic tile or less is expected in 2009 will continue in 2008 the situation will not have too many changes. Over the past year, in terms of the global ceramic tile industry is the most difficult one, even though production on the rise, but the profits of an enterprise is on the decline, in addition to China, Brazil, Vietnam and a few other domestic sales growth, Italy, Spain, India, Japan, the United States, tile sharp decline in consumption, and will have an impact on the future.
In 2008, the world's ceramic tile production rose to 8.5 billion square meters, annual production is expected to 2009, and 2008 unchanged. Ceramic tile consumption in the Asian region to maintain a good upward trend, while Europe, Japan and the United States of these the world's top 10 economies from 2008 began a gradual downward trend in consumption of ceramic tiles. As the impact of financial crisis, this year declines in sales of ceramic tile in some countries as much as 20% ~ 50%. So far, China, Brazil, Italy and Spain have always dominated the world's ceramic tile production in the first few big countries. Representatives of other countries and regions as well as data reporting point of view, the situation in China a single good, Italy, Spain, more powerful industry hit the United States is full of future market expectations.
China is entering the recovery status of the whole industry
Forum Chinese government increased domestic demand and China's vast rural market pull, the Chinese construction industry in a crisis for the nation's adjustment and upgrading, the annual output of more than 6 billion square meters, exports only 670 million square meters, 88% of the domestic market, imports market share of 0.06%, the product price has risen too.
Product structure, the ceramic tile 64%, interior glazed tiles 25, 7% of stoneware tiles, stoneware and fine stoneware tiles 4%, the low-end products accounted for more than 80%; first half of 2009, the whole industry into the "revival" state, national industrial transfer and distribution once again started; decline in exports and domestic sales increase; production costs decreased, corporate profits fell in the morning and synchronization; the whole industry, basically through the most difficult times in March and gradually into the recovery phase began.
Of energy, industry, annual consumption of about 150 million tons of mineral raw materials, basic local materials, the Chinese government energy-saving emission reduction policies and export taxes reduced to 8% of the policies to help Chinese enterprises to ride out the storm played a role, the Chinese government promulgated a series of environmental policy, so that China Building Ceramic Industry more concerned about environmental and social responsibility.
India is projected 7% growth
While India affected by economic crisis, 24% of the factories to stop the kiln, the number of unemployed reached 40000, but has maintained GDP growth of India, India housing industries and pillar industries, IT has continued to maintain growth, future The Government plans to increase by about 2,000 million units of housing construction. Ceramic tile production increased by 20% last year to reach 390 million square meters. At present, India's per capita consumption of ceramic tiles from 0.36 square meters, there is still much room for development. Marketing point of view, yield 70% reliance on the domestic market. In the output of which accounted for 43% of tiles and other floor tiles accounted for 40 percent and imports 2,450 million square meters, export 1,400 million square meters. 2008 sales of view, the international market increased by 11%, imports increased 24%. This year, the domestic market is estimated that 7% growth.
German sales profits encountered unprecedented difficulties
On the whole German tile production is shrinking year by year, last year remained at 6,500 million square meters. In 2009 has dropped by 17 ~ 20%, sales profits were encountered unprecedented difficulties.
Italy is expected to reach 22 percent decline in output this year
Over the past two years by the Italian Federation of the continuous integration into the ceramics related to many of the chapters have joined together to form a more powerful system for face-degree ceramic industry economic crisis. In respect of the current domestic form, is expected to Italy this year, production decreased by about 22% to reduce the roughly 4,000 million square meters, sales are expected to decline to about 18% of approximately equivalent to 4 billion euros. In terms of investment decreased 8% to about 7,500 million euros, but the contrast from the turnover and sales terms, the investment rate was maintained at a proportion of the past. Probably accounted for about 15% of sales. From overseas exports, the Italian or to maintain the highest average price, with an average of 10 euros per square meter of ceramic tiles, while ranking second in Spain is 8 euros, while the output of superpower China 4 euros. From the demand perspective, the Italian market fundamentals remain unchanged, because the Italian people would prefer to use ceramic products.
Spanish ceramic tile industry output will decline every year
2009 is expected to be even more severe situation, the situation is even worse than in 2008. Spanish industry is now facing a double crisis: the financial crisis and the Spanish real estate market surplus. At present, the ceramic tile industry, the number of unemployed persons is probably around 8,000, the output will decrease under the 2009 and 2007 to do more, the output decreased by 55%, sales decreased by 37%. Apparent decline in domestic demand due to the market, imports also declined. As the impact of financial crisis, exports were restricted, while the exchange rate issue also affected the export sector.
Indonesia's exports in recent years, the domestic political situation in Indonesia is very economy has stabilized, the cabinet selection completed this year. Brick's production of 3.5 million square meters, there are 250 million daily-use porcelain, sanitary ware 4.5 million, the entire output value 800 million U.S. dollars. Main export countries are the United States, Australia and Europe, these three countries. However, due to the economic crisis, which three countries are both affected by more serious, neighboring countries, an annual output of 1,900 million square meters, Malaysia, Thailand, 6,300 million square meters, Vietnam and Indonesia, has remained flat, so not very recent years, the export boom.
Brazil had to rely on the domestic market
From the Brazilian point of view, a decrease of 8 percent of employees, production, a decrease of 11%. Brazil's domestic market demand increased by 7%, 13% reduction in overseas markets. Brazil's main export countries are the United States ceramic tile, but sales fell 63% last year, while exports to Latin American countries such as the products also reduced a lot. Imports increased by 23%, and in this 23%, almost all imports come from Chinese products. 3.9 square meters per capita consumption of ceramic tiles, the ceramic industry from the Brazilian point of view, or to rely on the domestic market.
The United States has gone through the most difficult times
The U.S. market has been the most difficult times, from the first half of 2009 data, the tile consumption of 650 million square feet, and only half of the same period in 2008, and now is picking up. Now the housing market began to rebound in October compared with second-hand housing ring up 10.1%, sales of 6.1 million units, real estate, generally as a leading indicator of building materials, from this point of view, is more optimistic about the future market. The U.S. market mainly depend on imports. From the global production trends, to 07-08 from all major producing countries, the changes in ceramic tile or less is expected in 2009 will continue in 2008 the situation will not have too many changes. Over the past year, in terms of the global ceramic tile industry is the most difficult one, even though production on the rise, but the profits of an enterprise is on the decline, in addition to China, Brazil, Vietnam and a few other domestic sales growth, Italy, Spain, India, Japan, the United States, tile sharp decline in consumption, and will have an impact on the future.
Global production of ceramic tiles
PROFILE OF THE WORLD CERAMIC TILE INDUSTRY, 2007
23 October 2008 – Mumbai, India
PROFILE OF THE WORLD CERAMIC TILE INDUSTRY, 2006
23 October 2008 – Mumbai, India
23 October 2008 – Mumbai, India
PROFILE OF THE WORLD CERAMIC TILE INDUSTRY, 2006
23 October 2008 – Mumbai, India
LA FABRICACION DE PRODUCTOS CERAMICOS
INTRODUCCION
Los materiales cerámicos ( del griego ¨keramos¨ ) son producto del cocimiento de tierras arcillosas previamente moldeadas.
Por la necesidad del hombre de adaptarse al ambiente en que vive y utilizar las cosas que lo rodean, el ladrillo hizo su aparición en la antigüedad en todas aquellos países en los que faltaba la piedra y abundaba la arcilla.
La técnica de cocer arcillas para producir ladrillos y baldosas tiene mas de 4000 años. Se basa en que los suelos arcillosos (que contienen entre 20 y 50% de arcillas) experimentan reacciones irreversibles, calentándolos a 850-1000 °C, en los cuales las partículas se entrelazan mediante un material cerámico vidrioso.
Antedecentes históricos del amasado y cocido de arcillas:
a ) cacharrería ( Egipto, 3.000 A.C. )
b ) gres y porcelana ( China , 100 A.C.)
GENERALIDADES.
ARCILLA :
Es la principal materia prima en la fabricación de ladrillos, tejas,etc.
Producto de la descomposición de rocas sedimentarias, por lo que su variedad es muy amplia. Para rocas sedimentarias in situ, arcillas puras, y para rocas sedimentarias de arrastre, arcillas impuras.
Consiste en un silicato de alúmina hidratado, de estructura laminar con particulas de dimensionaes varaiables entre 2 y 20 micras.
CLASIFICACION GEOLOGICA:
MODERNAS : Aluviales. Sedimentadas por arrastre de ríos. Heterogéneas y con consistencia variable. Impurezas.
ANTIGUAS : Consolidadas por presión. Consistentes y homogéneas.
COMPOSICION QUIMICA:
SILICE – se encuentra en 40 % o más (47% valor promedio.
AGUA - 14 %
ALUMINIA - 39%
IMPUREZAS - óxidos de hierro y calcio, soda, potasa.
TIPOS DE ARCILLA:
a. MAGRAS 10 al 20 % de aluminia
Son las que contienen una excesiva cantidad de arena
Se secan con mayor rapidez, se contraen menos y se funden a menor temperatura que las grasas. Los productos resultantes de esta arcilla son productos porosos y quebradizos.
b. GRASAS 25 al 40 % de aluminia
Tienen escasez de arena, se contraen mucho y tienen un alto grado de plasticidad.
Los productos resultantes son grasos al tacto.
Según la proporción de hierro las arcillas se clasifican en 3 grupos que se distinguen según su coloración después del cocido:
a. Color blanquecino: Arcillas con moderada proporción de hierro.
b. Color rojo: arcillas con poco alumina,ricas en hierro.
c. Color rojo claro: arcillas con poco alumina, ricas en hierro y cal.
TIPOS DE AGUA:
a. De COMPOSICION. Está en el origen del material ( insustituible.
b. de ABSORCION (imbibicion) La que incorpora a su estructura a través de conductos y capilares . Se pierde por secado y posterior cocción.
c. LIBRE ( higrométrica ). Dispersa en la masa, sin que cambie la constitución del material.
DESENGRASANTES:
Son materiales no plásticos que se adicionan a la arcilla y que le hacen perder plasticidad, ademas de producir contracciones menores y una mas facil salida del agua del interior de la pieza.
El mas usado es el ladrillo molido, pero tambien se usan cenizas o arenas de granos finos.
PLASTIFICANTES.
GENERALIDADES
• Color: variable depende de impurezas en el contenido de arcillas, entre blanco pajizo (mas puro) hasta negro violáceo, pasando por rosados y rojos.
• Textura rugosa o vítrea.
• Deterioros : - porosos ( hongos, manchas, eflorescencias ).
- vítreos ( cuarteaduras, desprendimientos ).
• Forma:tolerancia en desviaciones de la linea recta en aristas y diagonales.
• Fácil manipuleo.
CARACTERISTICAS FISICAS :
Las propiedades físicas de los materiales cerámicos dependen de su propia naturaleza, algunas pueden ser medidas y cuantificadas a través de ensayos y/o pruebas de laboratorios. Es mas, muchas de estas pruebas se hallan normalizadas y cuentan con protocolos exactos que describen la forma de desarrollarlas y llevarlas a cabo.
1 - TERMICAS:
C - Calor específico: Kcal. / Kg. °C Igual para todos los tipos.
K - Conductividad térmica: Kcal. / m . h . °C Variable por estructura interna.
M.E. - Densidad: Kg. / dm3 Variable por estructura interna
• Ladrillo macizo 1.75 kg/dm3.
• Ladrillo hueco 1 kg/dm3. (variable según cantidad de huecos)
La conductividad térmica es inversamente proporcional a la densidad del material.
2 - HUMIDICAS:
Permeabilidad.
Es la propiedad que permite a un fluido moverse en el interior de un cuerpo bajo la influencia de una diferencia de presión.
En general un material de baja porosidad es también de baja permeabilidad, pero no se conocen leyes físicas que relacionen ambas propiedades.
- Porosas
Estructura celular abierta.
Permeables al agua y al vapor ( ladrillo, ticholo, bovedilla).
- Vítreas
Estructura continua.
Impermeables ( porcelana, gres, azulejos ).
Absorción del agua.
Es la proporción de poros que se llenan de agua cuando el material es humedecido.
Este ensayo es fundamental a los efectos de clasificar los distintos tipos de materiales cerámicos e influye sobre otras características de los mismos ( resistencia al congelamiento, entre otros.
Consiste en la inmersión de la pieza en un recipiente con agua, con presión estipulada, y llevar a punto de ebullición por un tiempo predeterminado.
La pieza es luego escurrida y secada superficialmente a los efectos de ser pesada, y medir así el % de variación de peso sufrido contra el peso de la misma pieza totalmente seca.
- Porosas - Absorben y difunden agua de lluvia,vapor de agua)hasta un 18% de su peso
- Vítreas - Absorben hasta un 0.12 % de su peso. Condensan.
3 - RADIACION SOLAR :
Se modifican los coeficientes de absorción solar del material en función de la terminación superficial - rugosa ( porosas) o lisa ( vítreas), y del color: terracota ( porosas y gres) o variable ( vítreas).
CARACTERISTICAS MECANICAS:
Las características mecánicas son las determinantes en especial en los ladrillos.
Tiene que ver con la resisitencia a los esfuerzos simples y a su dureza.
En general estos se emplean para trabajar a la compresión por lo que este es el ensayo que más se realiza (con probetas)
Depende también del mortero de la junta.
ESCALA MOHS DE DUREZA SUPERFICIAL.
Otro ensayo habitual es la comprobación de la dureza de la superficie del material. Se rige por la norma UNI EN 101 y el ensayo consiste en la utilización de punzones con distintos tipos de puntas, graduadas según su dureza, determinando cuales son capaces de dejar su impronta en el material y cuales no, siendo las superficies mas duras clasificadas con el grado #10, y en formas decreciente las mas blandas, hasta el grado #1.
• Resistencia a la compresión :
campo - 40 kgf/cm2 m
máquina - 120 kgf/cm2 .
• Módulo de Elasticidad E = 100.000 kgf/cm2 ( bajo ).
• Coeficiente de dilatación térmica = 0.005 mm/m.h.°C ( bajo - refractarios ).
OTRAS CARACTERISTICAS :
• Resistencia a la abrasión: consiste en someter a una probeta de material a la accion abrasiva conjunta de una rueda con polvo de corindón.
Luego de un tiempo determinado (200 revoluciones) se procede a medir el hueco dejado en el material, en mm3. a menor volumen del material removido, mayor resistencia del material ensayado.
- Porosos : mala .
- Vítreos : aceptable a buena.
• Resistencia a la heladicidad : en porosos puede generar deterioro para esto se realizan ensayos que miden la resistencia de una probeta ante heladas y deshielos.
• Envejecimiento : buen comportamiento ( excepto azulejos ).
• Disolución : son atacados por sales solubles ( sulfatos, nitratos ).
• Combustibilidad : no inflamables .
• Reciclabilidad : algunos productos.
• Eflorescencias: son debidas a la cristalización de las sales solubles contenidas en los ladrillos o tejas.
No es posible fijar un mínimo de sales para que no se produzcan eflorescencias. Parece ser que la presencia de diversas sales juntas, su proporción relativa y el sistema capilar de la pieza son las causas decisivas para que aparezcan.
El ensayo para determinar si existen o no en una pieza de cerámica, se basa en la observación de las piezas cuando se desecan después de haber estado parcialmente sumergidos en agua destilada.
PROPIEDADES.
1 ) PLASTICIDAD
Es la propiedad de un material que al recibir la accion de una fuerza puede permanecer deformado luego que esta se retira.
Es una propiedad natural , la cual puede obtenerse también artificialmente.
Reguladores :
1 -Pureza (a mayor pureza = mayor plasticidad).
2 -Contenido de agua: seca (no plástica), con hidratación del 50 % (mayor volumen, más dócil), excedida de agua ( líquido viscoso. Tamaño y forma de las partículas: menor dimensión da mayor plasticidad.
3 -Contenido de aire: mayor aire disminuye plasticidad
4 -Agregados: plastificante = materia orgánica (da mayor plasticidad),
5 -Desengrasante = sílice, ladrillo partido (dan menor plasticidad).Contenido de agua: seca (no plástica), con hidratación del 50 % (mayor volumen, más dócil), excedida de agua ( líquido viscoso.
Es esencial para facilitar el moldeado. Depende del contenido en arcilla, un alto porcentaje puede producir hinchamiento y retracción, lo que tampoco es adecuado para la fabricación de ladrillos.
2 ) COHESION : La estructura molecular permite conservar la forma.
3 ) CONTRACCION : Depende del secado ( aproximadamente 10 % del volumen ). Los elementos principales para regularla son la temperatura, humedad y volumen del aire
4 ) COCHURA :
Los materiales cerámicos ( del griego ¨keramos¨ ) son producto del cocimiento de tierras arcillosas previamente moldeadas.
Por la necesidad del hombre de adaptarse al ambiente en que vive y utilizar las cosas que lo rodean, el ladrillo hizo su aparición en la antigüedad en todas aquellos países en los que faltaba la piedra y abundaba la arcilla.
La técnica de cocer arcillas para producir ladrillos y baldosas tiene mas de 4000 años. Se basa en que los suelos arcillosos (que contienen entre 20 y 50% de arcillas) experimentan reacciones irreversibles, calentándolos a 850-1000 °C, en los cuales las partículas se entrelazan mediante un material cerámico vidrioso.
Antedecentes históricos del amasado y cocido de arcillas:
a ) cacharrería ( Egipto, 3.000 A.C. )
b ) gres y porcelana ( China , 100 A.C.)
GENERALIDADES.
ARCILLA :
Es la principal materia prima en la fabricación de ladrillos, tejas,etc.
Producto de la descomposición de rocas sedimentarias, por lo que su variedad es muy amplia. Para rocas sedimentarias in situ, arcillas puras, y para rocas sedimentarias de arrastre, arcillas impuras.
Consiste en un silicato de alúmina hidratado, de estructura laminar con particulas de dimensionaes varaiables entre 2 y 20 micras.
CLASIFICACION GEOLOGICA:
MODERNAS : Aluviales. Sedimentadas por arrastre de ríos. Heterogéneas y con consistencia variable. Impurezas.
ANTIGUAS : Consolidadas por presión. Consistentes y homogéneas.
COMPOSICION QUIMICA:
SILICE – se encuentra en 40 % o más (47% valor promedio.
AGUA - 14 %
ALUMINIA - 39%
IMPUREZAS - óxidos de hierro y calcio, soda, potasa.
TIPOS DE ARCILLA:
a. MAGRAS 10 al 20 % de aluminia
Son las que contienen una excesiva cantidad de arena
Se secan con mayor rapidez, se contraen menos y se funden a menor temperatura que las grasas. Los productos resultantes de esta arcilla son productos porosos y quebradizos.
b. GRASAS 25 al 40 % de aluminia
Tienen escasez de arena, se contraen mucho y tienen un alto grado de plasticidad.
Los productos resultantes son grasos al tacto.
Según la proporción de hierro las arcillas se clasifican en 3 grupos que se distinguen según su coloración después del cocido:
a. Color blanquecino: Arcillas con moderada proporción de hierro.
b. Color rojo: arcillas con poco alumina,ricas en hierro.
c. Color rojo claro: arcillas con poco alumina, ricas en hierro y cal.
TIPOS DE AGUA:
a. De COMPOSICION. Está en el origen del material ( insustituible.
b. de ABSORCION (imbibicion) La que incorpora a su estructura a través de conductos y capilares . Se pierde por secado y posterior cocción.
c. LIBRE ( higrométrica ). Dispersa en la masa, sin que cambie la constitución del material.
DESENGRASANTES:
Son materiales no plásticos que se adicionan a la arcilla y que le hacen perder plasticidad, ademas de producir contracciones menores y una mas facil salida del agua del interior de la pieza.
El mas usado es el ladrillo molido, pero tambien se usan cenizas o arenas de granos finos.
PLASTIFICANTES.
GENERALIDADES
• Color: variable depende de impurezas en el contenido de arcillas, entre blanco pajizo (mas puro) hasta negro violáceo, pasando por rosados y rojos.
• Textura rugosa o vítrea.
• Deterioros : - porosos ( hongos, manchas, eflorescencias ).
- vítreos ( cuarteaduras, desprendimientos ).
• Forma:tolerancia en desviaciones de la linea recta en aristas y diagonales.
• Fácil manipuleo.
CARACTERISTICAS FISICAS :
Las propiedades físicas de los materiales cerámicos dependen de su propia naturaleza, algunas pueden ser medidas y cuantificadas a través de ensayos y/o pruebas de laboratorios. Es mas, muchas de estas pruebas se hallan normalizadas y cuentan con protocolos exactos que describen la forma de desarrollarlas y llevarlas a cabo.
1 - TERMICAS:
C - Calor específico: Kcal. / Kg. °C Igual para todos los tipos.
K - Conductividad térmica: Kcal. / m . h . °C Variable por estructura interna.
M.E. - Densidad: Kg. / dm3 Variable por estructura interna
• Ladrillo macizo 1.75 kg/dm3.
• Ladrillo hueco 1 kg/dm3. (variable según cantidad de huecos)
La conductividad térmica es inversamente proporcional a la densidad del material.
2 - HUMIDICAS:
Permeabilidad.
Es la propiedad que permite a un fluido moverse en el interior de un cuerpo bajo la influencia de una diferencia de presión.
En general un material de baja porosidad es también de baja permeabilidad, pero no se conocen leyes físicas que relacionen ambas propiedades.
- Porosas
Estructura celular abierta.
Permeables al agua y al vapor ( ladrillo, ticholo, bovedilla).
- Vítreas
Estructura continua.
Impermeables ( porcelana, gres, azulejos ).
Absorción del agua.
Es la proporción de poros que se llenan de agua cuando el material es humedecido.
Este ensayo es fundamental a los efectos de clasificar los distintos tipos de materiales cerámicos e influye sobre otras características de los mismos ( resistencia al congelamiento, entre otros.
Consiste en la inmersión de la pieza en un recipiente con agua, con presión estipulada, y llevar a punto de ebullición por un tiempo predeterminado.
La pieza es luego escurrida y secada superficialmente a los efectos de ser pesada, y medir así el % de variación de peso sufrido contra el peso de la misma pieza totalmente seca.
- Porosas - Absorben y difunden agua de lluvia,vapor de agua)hasta un 18% de su peso
- Vítreas - Absorben hasta un 0.12 % de su peso. Condensan.
3 - RADIACION SOLAR :
Se modifican los coeficientes de absorción solar del material en función de la terminación superficial - rugosa ( porosas) o lisa ( vítreas), y del color: terracota ( porosas y gres) o variable ( vítreas).
CARACTERISTICAS MECANICAS:
Las características mecánicas son las determinantes en especial en los ladrillos.
Tiene que ver con la resisitencia a los esfuerzos simples y a su dureza.
En general estos se emplean para trabajar a la compresión por lo que este es el ensayo que más se realiza (con probetas)
Depende también del mortero de la junta.
ESCALA MOHS DE DUREZA SUPERFICIAL.
Otro ensayo habitual es la comprobación de la dureza de la superficie del material. Se rige por la norma UNI EN 101 y el ensayo consiste en la utilización de punzones con distintos tipos de puntas, graduadas según su dureza, determinando cuales son capaces de dejar su impronta en el material y cuales no, siendo las superficies mas duras clasificadas con el grado #10, y en formas decreciente las mas blandas, hasta el grado #1.
• Resistencia a la compresión :
campo - 40 kgf/cm2 m
máquina - 120 kgf/cm2 .
• Módulo de Elasticidad E = 100.000 kgf/cm2 ( bajo ).
• Coeficiente de dilatación térmica = 0.005 mm/m.h.°C ( bajo - refractarios ).
OTRAS CARACTERISTICAS :
• Resistencia a la abrasión: consiste en someter a una probeta de material a la accion abrasiva conjunta de una rueda con polvo de corindón.
Luego de un tiempo determinado (200 revoluciones) se procede a medir el hueco dejado en el material, en mm3. a menor volumen del material removido, mayor resistencia del material ensayado.
- Porosos : mala .
- Vítreos : aceptable a buena.
• Resistencia a la heladicidad : en porosos puede generar deterioro para esto se realizan ensayos que miden la resistencia de una probeta ante heladas y deshielos.
• Envejecimiento : buen comportamiento ( excepto azulejos ).
• Disolución : son atacados por sales solubles ( sulfatos, nitratos ).
• Combustibilidad : no inflamables .
• Reciclabilidad : algunos productos.
• Eflorescencias: son debidas a la cristalización de las sales solubles contenidas en los ladrillos o tejas.
No es posible fijar un mínimo de sales para que no se produzcan eflorescencias. Parece ser que la presencia de diversas sales juntas, su proporción relativa y el sistema capilar de la pieza son las causas decisivas para que aparezcan.
El ensayo para determinar si existen o no en una pieza de cerámica, se basa en la observación de las piezas cuando se desecan después de haber estado parcialmente sumergidos en agua destilada.
PROPIEDADES.
1 ) PLASTICIDAD
Es la propiedad de un material que al recibir la accion de una fuerza puede permanecer deformado luego que esta se retira.
Es una propiedad natural , la cual puede obtenerse también artificialmente.
Reguladores :
1 -Pureza (a mayor pureza = mayor plasticidad).
2 -Contenido de agua: seca (no plástica), con hidratación del 50 % (mayor volumen, más dócil), excedida de agua ( líquido viscoso. Tamaño y forma de las partículas: menor dimensión da mayor plasticidad.
3 -Contenido de aire: mayor aire disminuye plasticidad
4 -Agregados: plastificante = materia orgánica (da mayor plasticidad),
5 -Desengrasante = sílice, ladrillo partido (dan menor plasticidad).Contenido de agua: seca (no plástica), con hidratación del 50 % (mayor volumen, más dócil), excedida de agua ( líquido viscoso.
Es esencial para facilitar el moldeado. Depende del contenido en arcilla, un alto porcentaje puede producir hinchamiento y retracción, lo que tampoco es adecuado para la fabricación de ladrillos.
2 ) COHESION : La estructura molecular permite conservar la forma.
3 ) CONTRACCION : Depende del secado ( aproximadamente 10 % del volumen ). Los elementos principales para regularla son la temperatura, humedad y volumen del aire
4 ) COCHURA :
jueves, 29 de abril de 2010
THAILAND CERAMIC INDUSTRY
Ceramic Industry
Ceramic industry mainly uses domestic raw materials, requires high labor-intensive and aims at fulfilling the government policy in creating employment and distributing income to regional areas. Therefore, it is one of the most important industries.
1. Production
Ceramic production still expanded more from the increase of production capacity of each factory in order to meet the domestic real estate business’s needs that tended expand continuously but at a decelerating pace from booming to normal conditions. This is caused by a clear reflection of the measure to control real estate credit approval of the Bank of Thailand and the cancellation of governmental measures stimulating the real estate business. As the purchasing power for real estates used in 2003, a demand for construction materials including floor-tile, wall-tile and sanitary ware has begun to slow down and is not as strong as in the previous year. In 2004, 142.16 million square meters of floor-tiles and wall-tiles have been produced which is an increase of 18.28 % from 2003, and 7.79 million pieces of sanitary wares have been produced which is an increase of 6.65 % from 2003. (See Table 1)
2. Marketing
2.1 Domestic Market
Domestic distribution of ceramic continues to expand but with a slight slowdown corresponding to weaker conditions of real estate business expansion. In 2004, 151.63 million square meters of floor-tiles wall-tiles have been sold which is an increase of 8.72 % from 2003, and 4.36 million pieces of sanitary wares have been sold which is an increase of 20.27 % from 2003. (See Table 1)
Domestic distribution of ceramic is highly competitive because it must compete with imported products from foreign countries, especially from China, while the domestic selling prices of ceramic tend to be higher as a result of oil prices in global market. Many entrepreneurs’ policies have focused upon middle-end-market and high-end-market to enhance value-added to their products by emphasizing on research and development on new products, design, marketing strategy including advertising through media, increasing the number of distributors, improving displays, adding more product shops, and participating in the exhibition and product fairs.
2.2 Export
Most ceramic products have been exported to Japan, U.S., United Kingdom, Australia, Taiwan, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, South Korea and ASEAN countries. In 2004, the export value of ceramic products is US$ 540.3 million, increased by 3.01 % from 2003 (See Table 2). This is an increase in the U.S. market, the main market for floor-tile and wall-tile, while the exporting growth rate of other products has declined almost in every main market.
2.3 Import
In 2004, the import value of ceramic products is approximately US$ 219.6 million, increased by 41.59 % from 2003 (See Table 2). They are mostly imported from Japan, China, Germany, Malaysia, Indonesia, Italy, U.S., Singapore, Spain and Taiwan, etc. Mostly, products with high growth rate of import are good quality and expensive, which cannot be produced domestically, such as fireproof brick and laboratory devices that are imported from Japan, and products with lower costs than those produced domestically, especially floor-tile and wall-tile that are imported from China.
3. Summary
Domestic production and distribution of ceramic, particularly ceramic that are used as construction materials such as floor-tile, wall-tile and sanitary ware, have continued to increase as a result of the expansion of domestic real estate business even though the expansion is not as strong as last year. This is caused by measures controlling real estate credit approval from the Bank of Thailand, cancellation of governmental measures stimulating the real estate business, and rising interest rate. However, the production and distribution of ceramic products still have a positive trend because major markets of ceramic are those who buy it for home improvement. Particularly, in the southern provinces damaged by Tsunami, there is an urgent need to revive the tourism business and repair a large number of houses. For the sales of ceramic, prices tend to increase as a result of oil price change. Export of ceramic products is at high growth rate with positive trend. However, export of ceramic can be affected by devaluation of the dollar.
Ceramic industry mainly uses domestic raw materials, requires high labor-intensive and aims at fulfilling the government policy in creating employment and distributing income to regional areas. Therefore, it is one of the most important industries.
1. Production
Ceramic production still expanded more from the increase of production capacity of each factory in order to meet the domestic real estate business’s needs that tended expand continuously but at a decelerating pace from booming to normal conditions. This is caused by a clear reflection of the measure to control real estate credit approval of the Bank of Thailand and the cancellation of governmental measures stimulating the real estate business. As the purchasing power for real estates used in 2003, a demand for construction materials including floor-tile, wall-tile and sanitary ware has begun to slow down and is not as strong as in the previous year. In 2004, 142.16 million square meters of floor-tiles and wall-tiles have been produced which is an increase of 18.28 % from 2003, and 7.79 million pieces of sanitary wares have been produced which is an increase of 6.65 % from 2003. (See Table 1)
2. Marketing
2.1 Domestic Market
Domestic distribution of ceramic continues to expand but with a slight slowdown corresponding to weaker conditions of real estate business expansion. In 2004, 151.63 million square meters of floor-tiles wall-tiles have been sold which is an increase of 8.72 % from 2003, and 4.36 million pieces of sanitary wares have been sold which is an increase of 20.27 % from 2003. (See Table 1)
Domestic distribution of ceramic is highly competitive because it must compete with imported products from foreign countries, especially from China, while the domestic selling prices of ceramic tend to be higher as a result of oil prices in global market. Many entrepreneurs’ policies have focused upon middle-end-market and high-end-market to enhance value-added to their products by emphasizing on research and development on new products, design, marketing strategy including advertising through media, increasing the number of distributors, improving displays, adding more product shops, and participating in the exhibition and product fairs.
2.2 Export
Most ceramic products have been exported to Japan, U.S., United Kingdom, Australia, Taiwan, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, South Korea and ASEAN countries. In 2004, the export value of ceramic products is US$ 540.3 million, increased by 3.01 % from 2003 (See Table 2). This is an increase in the U.S. market, the main market for floor-tile and wall-tile, while the exporting growth rate of other products has declined almost in every main market.
2.3 Import
In 2004, the import value of ceramic products is approximately US$ 219.6 million, increased by 41.59 % from 2003 (See Table 2). They are mostly imported from Japan, China, Germany, Malaysia, Indonesia, Italy, U.S., Singapore, Spain and Taiwan, etc. Mostly, products with high growth rate of import are good quality and expensive, which cannot be produced domestically, such as fireproof brick and laboratory devices that are imported from Japan, and products with lower costs than those produced domestically, especially floor-tile and wall-tile that are imported from China.
3. Summary
Domestic production and distribution of ceramic, particularly ceramic that are used as construction materials such as floor-tile, wall-tile and sanitary ware, have continued to increase as a result of the expansion of domestic real estate business even though the expansion is not as strong as last year. This is caused by measures controlling real estate credit approval from the Bank of Thailand, cancellation of governmental measures stimulating the real estate business, and rising interest rate. However, the production and distribution of ceramic products still have a positive trend because major markets of ceramic are those who buy it for home improvement. Particularly, in the southern provinces damaged by Tsunami, there is an urgent need to revive the tourism business and repair a large number of houses. For the sales of ceramic, prices tend to increase as a result of oil price change. Export of ceramic products is at high growth rate with positive trend. However, export of ceramic can be affected by devaluation of the dollar.
viernes, 16 de abril de 2010
Thailand tableware industry
Thailand's tableware ceramic industry has been developed from the small & medium-sized industry to serve domestic demand as well as to decrease imports. The annual export turnover of tableware ceramic totalled more than 4 billion baht over the past one to two years.
The total market value of the tableware ceramic industry grew by an average of 17.5% a year during 1995-1998 and declined by 9% or 5,508 million baht in 1999. Despite the improving economy, the financial and investment sectors have been consistently slowing down. This is due to the decline of domestic demand (local sales and imports) and exports. The total market value of the tableware ceramic industry in 2000 is projected to rise by 7% year-on-year, and 80% of which are for the export orientation.
About of 90-100 manufacturers have currently operated in the tableware ceramic business, most of them have produced Stoneware and Earthenware. Both kinds of products have a relatively tough competition because the production doesn't need a large amount of investment capital. The production requires neither a complicated technique nor a highly skillful technician. However, Stoneware and Earthenware have a lower margin compared to Porcelain and Bone China.
The tableware ceramic industry uses clay as the main ingredient, which can be obtained in the country, except some materials that manufacturers need to import due to a typical attribute such as bone ashes, etc. Nevertheless, the small and medium-sized manufacturers in particular currently prefer to use instant clay or compound clay in the production process owing to convenience and timeliness. Meanwhile, other materials are necessary to import from abroad, such as color or pigment and glaze or frit, etc. The main machinery used in production, namely a ceramic kiln, a clay mixing machine, a forming machine and molds, are available in the country; while labor forces can be recruited nationwide.
The total investment capital for the tableware ceramic industry depends on the production category. The initial investment capital is mostly spent on raw materials and wages while the machinery doesn't cost too high. At the same time, the overhead expenses are mainly the energy cost (a gasoline or electricity) for firing ceramics, followed by depreciation, and interest expenses in case of borrowing for operation.
Marketing
Demand: Present and Future
The tableware ceramic has been divided into four core categories. Firstly, Earthenware is a thick and finely product, but it has a porous attribute that can absorb the water such as a chicken brand bowl, a rice dish or a noodle bowl, etc. Secondly, Stoneware is a solid and thick product. It is usually produced in an opaque glaze. Thirdly, Porcelain has a better quality than the above two products, but it costs more expensive. Porcelain consists of the opaque glazed porcelain and the transparent glazed porcelain. Its attributes are solid and water-resistant. Porcelain has been usually produced the slim and shiny glazed ceramics. Lastly, Bone China is the highest quality and most expensive product among all kind tableware ceramics. It is white, shiny, slim and lightweight. Bone China is the best quality of strength as made of animal bones or bone ash.
The total market value of the tableware ceramic industry during 1995-1998 grew by an average of 17.5% a year. The export markets (about 75-80% of total market value) expanded by an average of 22% a year, totalling 5,151 million baht in 1998. At the same time, the domestic market growth (local sales and imports) was unchanged at 930 million baht. Despite the improving economy since 1999, but the financial and investment sentiments have been consistently slowdown, particularly the hotel, restaurant and food store business. Meanwhile, the purchasing power of consumers becomes lower contributing to the demand shrink of tableware ceramic by 9%, accounting for 5,508 million baht. About 820 million baht of total sales generated from domestic market, or dropped by 9% from last year. For imports, both volume and value are expected to rise from a year earlier, totalling 340 tons or valuing 38 million baht. The import prices are likely to decline by 46% from a previous year as a result of the market dumping of cheaper goods from China, Indonesia and Malaysia.
The export value of tableware ceramic in 1999 is expected to slump by 9.7% year-on-year to be 4,650 million baht. On volume, the export slid by 1% only amounting to 58,800 tons. This was partially due to the tougher competition in export markets and contributing to the downtrend of export prices by 9% from a year ago. Of total export value, about 36% generated from Porcelain and Bone China while the rest of 64% came from Earthenware and Stoneware. Nevertheless, the price of porcelain and bone china tends to decrease in a higher ratio than of earthenware and stoneware because of the design and quality development to meet the upper and middle-class markets demand. The main export markets of tableware ceramic are United States, Japan, Australia, and such the European countries as England, German, Italy, etc.
The total market value of tableware ceramic in 2000 is projected to grow by 7% from a year earlier to be 5.9 billion baht. Of total market value, above 80% of tableware ceramic industry are export-oriented. The export growth is projected to increase by 7.5%, valuing 5 billion baht because of the improvement of product design and quality to meet the market demand and the expansion of the emerging market like the Middle East. Domestic consumption (domestic sale and imports) will rise by 4.9% to 900 million baht in parallel with the improving economy, finance and investment.
Present Manufacturers
A total of 90-100 manufacturers have currently operated in the tableware ceramic industry. Most of them are small and medium-sized. The tableware industry is the oriented-export production, accounting for above 70%. The production is mostly Stoneware and Earthenware. The competition is relatively high compared to Porcelain and Bone China because they require no high investment capital, non-complicated production technique and no high skills. Stoneware and Earthenware, however, gain a lower margin compared to Porcelain and Bone China. Currently, quite a few manufacturers have produced Porcelain and Bone China such as Royal Porcelain Co., Ltd. and Siam Fine China, a subsidiary of Jalaprathan Cement and Patra Porcelain Co., Ltd., etc. A large manufacturer usually locates a plant nearby Bangkok due to convenient transportation while the small and medium-sized manufacturers scatter their plants in upcountry, especially in the north such as Lampang and Chieng Mai because of easy access to raw material sources and low wages.
List of Major Tableware Ceramic Manufacturers
Large Size Registered capital (baht)
Siam Fine China Co., Ltd. 700,000,000
Thai Ceramics Co., Ltd. 422,000,000
Patra Porcelain Co., Ltd. 330,000,000
Royal Porcelain Co., Ltd. 300,000,000
Medium and Small Sizes
Thai Porcelain Co., Ltd. 109,000,000
Thai Pottery Industry Co., Ltd. 80,000,000
Pongpaibul Industry Co., Ltd. 70,000,000
Kasalong Ceramics Co., Ltd. 68,571,000
Eastern Chinaware Co., Ltd. 48,350,000
Two way Ceramics Co., Ltd. 35,000,000
Source: Department of Industrial Works and Board of Investment (BOI)
Distribution Channels
The clients of tableware ceramic are divided into three categories that are:
1.! Lower class: a small-sized food store or trolley and a low-income household. The favored products are mostly Stoneware and Earthenware.
2.! Middle class: hotels, a medium-sized food store, restaurants and a medium-income household. The popular products are usually Stoneware and Porcelain.
3.! Upper class: a five-star hotel, a large restaurant, aviation and a high-income household. Porcelain and Bone China are mostly in favor.
Distribution channel in domestic market can be classified as follow:
1.! Directly distribute to the main clients such as a five-star hotel, a large restaurant and aviation. The products are relatively expensive and are made to order, etc.
2.! Distribute through a showroom and a department store
3.! Distribute through selling agents, wholesalers and retailers in Bangkok and the provinces, etc.
4.! Distribute through a booth display and a product exhibition
5.! Distribute through a promotion of other kinds of products
For overseas market, manufacturers will either sell the products through the selling agents or take orders directly from foreign clients. Clients may probably create their own designs.
Production
Raw Materials and Sources
The main ingredients used in production process are as follow:
1.! Clays consist of various mixture in different proportion depending on product category, for example, kaolin or fine white clay, sticky kaolin or fine white clay, feldspar, quartz and limestone. Raw clays are generally available in upcountry such as Lampang, Utaradit, Ranong, Chonburi, Lopburi, Kanjanaburi, etc. Bone China needs some imported materials like the high-quality bone ashes, etc. The production process starts with adding above materials together in a ball mill for fine grinding. However, manufacturers currently have an option to use a wide variety of instant or compound clays up to desired products for more convenience and speediness. Instant Clay distributors are Compound Clay Co., Ltd. and Clay and Minerals (Thailand) Co., Ltd. The price is subject to the clay category. For example, clays for Stoneware production cost five baht per kilogram, for Porcelain cost at 15-17 baht per kilogram and above 20 baht per kilogram for Bone China, etc.
2.! Color or Pigment is the main ingredient of production and enables the beautiful and attractive products.
Manufacturers commonly use the oxide substances to draw a pattern on ceramics before firing to give colors, namely, cobalt oxide (blue color), copper oxide and chromic oxide (green color), ferric oxide (brown color up to dark green), Manganess Oxide (brown color). In addition, they can use different kinds of instant colors in production. For instance, the Underglazing Color is used to draw a pattern before drying and passing into a glaze slip. The Overglazing Color is used to decorate the glazed ware. After painting, the ware will be taken to firing again. The color of overglazed ware is usually brighter than of underglazed ware. Nevertheless, the overglazing color has not been used in food container production because some kinds of glazing color may be solvent in acetic acid.
Current distributors of ceramic colors are Cernic Co., Ltd., Chakramon Ceramics Co.,
Ltd., etc.
The materials used in the color and instant color production are mostly imported from abroad such as Japan, United States and European countries, etc. At the present, manufacturers prefer to use a sticker for decoration due to convenience and promptness. Some stickers are painted with overglazing color, but some painted with underglazing color. After firing, the sticker will be fused onto the surface of desired product.
3.! Glaze helps even the product surface and make it easy for cleansing. The glazed ware is beautiful and endurable for damages of acid and sodium chloride. The glaze is divided into several categories classified by attributes such as glaze, frit, opacity and glazed surface (the surface of glazed ware will be callous like an eggshell. The glaze enables a shiny surface, callous and semi-callous). There are several glazing methods such as immerging, pouring, plating, brushing, etc., but the most popular technique is immerging. The glaze preparation can be conducted in a different way depending on desired product and surface. Operators in the tableware ceramic business presently can buy the ready-to-use glaze from the manufacturing companies, distributors or even import from abroad up to desired attributes. The glaze producer is Ceramic R-US Co., Ltd, etc.
4.! Forming Mold is probably made of a plaster for a mass production and the same design or in a case that some kinds of ceramics are produced neither by hand nor by machine.
5.! Refractory Box/Fireproof or Called "Jhor" is used to obtain the glazed ware for firing in a kiln. The box enables the ware gain heat totally and regularly, especially from gasoline or charcoal kiln. At present, the product can be placed on the pad called silicon carbide before baking.
Cost Structure of Tableware Ceramic Industry
Category Percentage
1. Raw materials 22
- Domestic Raw Materials 65
- Imported Raw Materials 35
2. Wages 40
3. Overhead Cost 30
4. Depreciation and Others 8
Total 100
Source: Interview manufacturers
Production process
Preparing clays/mixing instant clays with water
Forming by hand, platform or throwing and casting up to appropriation
Decorating and leave the clay dry
Dehumidifying clays at about
1st Firing (Biscuit Firing) 900-950C for 4-8 hours
(depending on category)
Drawing/copying
Glazing
Glaze fused onto the surface of the ware at about 1000-1350C
2nd firing (Gloss firing) for 6-12 hours.
Checking the quality and selecting
Packing/Distribution
Source: Interview manufacturers
Machines for Production
The machinery used in the tableware ceramic industry are as follow:
1.! A kiln consists of a brick kiln and a fiber kiln. A variety of fuels have been used in firing process such as bunker oil, gasoline, electricity and coal, etc. However, the kiln using fiber as a heat insulator has got a promotion and has the high popularity. It is fuelled with both electricity and gasoline. Meanwhile, imported kilns mainly come from Australia.
2.! A clay-mixing machine is generally available in domestic market. In addition, the powder-mixing machine for the bakery industry has been applied to mix the clays or made to order up to desire, and it doesn't cost the high price.
3.! A forming machine and a machine for pressing the processed clay into plates before shaping.
Investment and Finance
The tableware ceramic industry should locate the plant nearby the raw material sources or selling market. The total investment capital and equipment used in the tableware ceramic production, which require 60 tons of instant or compound clays per year and 8 working hours per day are identified as follow:
Initial Investment
1.! The registered capital and initial capital totalling 2-2.5 million baht
2.! Investment in permanent assets such as land and constructions. The area of production requires 100-150 square wah. For a small business, operators usually rent the plant for production, accounting for 5,000-10,000 baht per month up to location. The plant should open to the fresh air passing throughout.
3.! Costs of machinery
3.1!Forming machine is commonly produced in the country. The production needs 3-4 machines, each of which prices at 40,000-60,000 baht.
3.2!Clay-mixing machine: the price varies in size and attributes starting at 5,000 baht up to above 30,000 baht. The machine may probably be made to order up to desire. For a medium price machine, it values at 10,000 baht.
3.3!Two ceramic kilns fuelling with either gasoline or electricity. The price begins at 350,000 baht up to above 800,000 baht up to size. For a 2.5 cubic meter ceramic kiln, the price is approximately 650,000 baht (the price will be cheaper, amounting to 429,000 baht under a project of the Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation).
4.! At least one used car for transporting goods. The price ranges between 300,000 baht and 500,000 baht.
5.! Cash flow is spent on raw materials, wages and production expenses totalling 300,000 baht.
Personnel: a small tableware ceramic business requires a total of 25 employees.
1.! A total of 20 plant workers consist of
1.1!Clay-mixing technician
1.2!Forming and casting technician
1.3!Pattern drawing technician
1.4!Product delivery driver
1.5!Kiln control workers
1.6!Decorating and packaging workers
2.! Office workers and administrative officers: For a small business, administration manager is mostly the business owner. About 3-4 workers are general workers and clerks.--(next)
Tableware Ceramic Industry (2)
Source - Department of Industrial Promotion (Th/Eng)
Saturday, January 15, 2000 19:00
24068 XENGLISH XFF XART XGOV XLOCAL V%GOVL P%DIP
Annual Expenses
Cost of Production
1. Cost of Raw Materials 625,000 baht/year
(For 60 tons of instant clays per year, a loss is about 15 percent of total production)
- Instant or Compound Clays 300,000 baht/year
- Glaze 180,000 baht/year
- Color or Pigment 110,000 baht/year
- Design 35,000 baht/year
2. Wages 1,950,000 baht/year
3. Cost of Depreciation 240,000 baht/year
4. Overhead Costs 815,000 baht/year
4.1 Utilities
- Water 45,000 baht/year
- Electricity 240,000 baht/year
- Gasoline (for two kilns) 450,000 baht/year
- Telephone 45,000 baht/year
4.2 Transport Cost
- Oil 35,000 baht/year
5. Other Expenses
5.1!Hire for making an account 70,000 baht/year
5.2!Machinery maintenance 30,000 baht/year
5.3!Interest expenses - O/D 40,000 baht/year
5.4!General expenses -- wasteful materials 30,000 baht/year
The average profit is approximately 15-20% of total sale.
Note: Total sale is approximately 4.5-4.75 baht/year
In addition, the establishment of a product design company and the hire of production may be one of attractive ways for investment and may be proper with the small operators due to less investment capital and non-complicated technique. They usually produce Porcelain and are able to manufacture under their own trademark. The initial investment capital is rather low, totalling not more than 1 million baht.
Other advantages are no machinery venture, no plant workers, no raw material stock, no risk for the loss of production, no risk for demand drop, etc.
Expenses for initial investment are as follow:
1.! Rents for office building up to location
2.! About 4-5 product design employees, graduated in product design is preferable, especially in ceramics. At least one experienced employee is needed. The salary ranges between 20,000 and 30,000 baht per month. Outside workers may seldom be hired to create a variety of product designs. The business also needs a marketing officer to expand the market especially in overseas.
3.! The necessary equipment are such a computer for graphic design, a small ceramic kiln for producing a product sample (each prices about 20,000 baht), 1-2 forming machines, a sticker machine for a product model (each values between 200,000 and 300,000 baht). However, for an initial investment, operators are not necessary to buy a sticker machine, but they can hire other companies at 10,000 baht per design.
4.! Cash flow is the largest expenses due to the hire of production. The down payment for hire is about 30-50 percent of total wages. In addition, there is a mold expense for a new product. The price ranges between 10,000 and 100,000 baht per design up to difficulty or simplicity as well as the production volume.
Operational Process
Creating a design and a pattern
Sticking on to the surface of the ware
Making a sticker (hire/hand-made) before firing to get the desired product and color.
Making a product presentation to clients.
Having the plant evaluate the product
At least 3-4 designs should be displayed sample to determine the selling price.
It may be done in form of brochures.
Negotiating the price, design and volume
Hiring for production, mostly takes of orders about 30 days
Inspecting and shipping
Source: Interview manufacturers
The investment should concentrate on uniqueness and a wide variety of designs. Study on a trend of a product design in favor of the market is needed for the business efficiency. For export-oriented production, the average profit is relative high because operators can set a high price if the design meets the market demand. Nevertheless, for domestic sale, operators usually earn a lower average profit due to less price competitiveness and rapid imitation. Thereby, they should hire a firm offering a low price and create a unique design. Operators should make a copyright and ask for a patent for their own products and designs.
Appendix
Table1: Export of Tableware Ceramic in 1995-1999
Year Quantity % Change Value % Change
(tons) (million baht)
1995 46,329.20 -3.84 2,815.28 1.06
1996 38,928.20 -15.97 2,740.57 -2.65
1997 48,507.10 24.61 3,759.21 37.17
1998 59,396.12 22.45 5,151.08 37.03
1999 (Jan-Jun) 27,223.70 0.06 2,143.57 -17.25
Source: The Customs Department
Table2: Major Export Markets in the First Half of 1999
Country Percentage
1. United States 36.40
2. United Kingdom 12.70
3. Germany 7.60
4. Italy 6.70
5. Japan 4.60
6. Others 32.00
Total 100.00
Source: The Customs Department, calculated by SCB Research Institute
Table3: Import of Tableware Ceramic in 1995-1999
Year Quantity % Change Value % Change
(tons) (million baht)
1995 347.10 45.20 17.25 2.80
1996 371.00 6.90 16.83 -2.50
1997 1,841.70 396.40 71.23 323.30
1998 140.40 -92.40 29.12 -59.10
1999 (Jan-Jun) 181.40 248.90 20.76 47.50
Source: The Customs Department
Table4: Major Import Markets in the First Half of 1999
Country Percentage
1. Japan 51.34
2. China 38.06
3. Malaysia 2.32
4. France 2.14
5. Taiwan 0.82
6. Others 5.32
Total 100.00
Source: The Customs Department, calculated by SCB Research Institute
Domestic sale
Table5: The Domestic Market Value of Tableware Ceramic in 1996-2000
Year Market Value % Change
(million baht)
1996 920 0.07
1997 990 7.61
1998-e 900 -9.09
1999-e 820 -8.89
2000-f 850 3.42
Source: Compiled by SCB Research Institute
Note: e = estimated, f = forcasted
Selling Price
The price is subject to the product category, quality, size, style and design. The medium and high price products have usually been sold in a different set such as 16, 20, 40, 45 pieces a set, etc. Of all tableware ceramics, Porcelain is the most expensive product.
Sources of Machinery
Table 6: List of Manufacturers and Distributors of Machine and Equipment
Company Address
Inter Kilns Industry Co., Ltd. 59/24 Soi 85 Petchkasem Rd., Omnoi;
Kratumban, Samutsakorn Tel. 811-0604-5
Somsak Lathing Mill 516 Moo 10, Chompu, Muang, Lampang,
Tel. (054) 346433-4
Trimurati Associates and Corporation 15/432 sukumvit Rd, Samrong Nua, Muang,
Samutprakarn, Tel. 749-2822
Ceramic Consultant and Supply Co., Ltd. 251 Seri Thai Rd. Kannayao, Kannayao,
Bangkok, Tel. 379-9677
Kilns and Art Limited Partnership 41/5 Moo 9 Bang Pra, Sri Racha, Chonburi
Tel. (038) 770-052
Teamtec and Engineering Co., Ltd. 78/6 Moo1, Ram Indra Rd., Ta Raeng,
Bang Ken, Bangkok, Tel. 900-5524
Tai Hong E Co., Ltd. 66/36 Moo 13, Bang Pakong,
Chacheongsao, Chacheongsao, Tel. (038) 834-110
Lampang Chain Service Limited Moo6, Toong Ngam Sub-district, Serm
Partnership Ngam District, Lampang
Acme-inter Marketing Co., Ltd. 49/1 Sukumvit 91 Bangkok, Tel. 332-2270-2
Somkiat Supply Limited Partnership 71 Onnuch 64, Saun Laung, Bangkok,
Tel. 721-0425-5, 721-0653-4
Source: Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation
Note: The first 8 names are members of the Project for the Promotion of the Use of Highly Efficient Kiln.
Rules and Regulations
1.! Tariffs
- Raw materials: clays used in the tableware ceramic industry carries 5 percent of import duties. Taxes on color and glaze are set at 10 percent while the animal bone ashes are at 35 percent.
- Machinery and kiln carry 5 percent of import duties
- Instant product carries 30 percent of import duties
2.! Permission for Plant Establishment.
3.! Application of Investment Promotional Privileges
Privileges and incentives will be provided to the production of Stoneware, Porcelain, and Bone China according to the promotional criteria of the Board of Investment (BOI). The total investment capital is set aside at least 1 million baht. The promotional privileges will be granted to the plants located in zone 2 and 3. (If located in zone 1, the production must be export-oriented not less than 80 percent of total sales).
For a promotional zone 3, the plant will get the eight-year exemption of corporate tax and the five-year exemption of import duties for the export-oriented production, etc.
4.! Application for Standard Quality System
The quality control system of tableware ceramic industry has been divided into many categories so as to make consumers more confident of the hygienic standard. Most standards are involved with industrial product standards of the Thai Industrial Standards Institute, Industry Ministry. Industrial standards are identified below:
Raw Material Standard: such as TIS 485-2526 -- kaolin for terra-cotta industry.
Product Standard: TIS 564-2528 -- ceramic food containers: Porcelain. No.601-2529 -- ceramic food containers: Earthenware. TIS 602-2529 -- ceramic food containers: Stoneware
Permission for a certificate of quality control standard consists of 5 stages as follow:
1.! Making an inquiry: Operators who prefer a certificate of quality control can make inquiries to the Industrial Standards Institute.
2.! Submitting an application form: Operators submit the application form and related documents for consideration of the Industrial Standards Institute.
3.! Evaluating: The Industrial Standards Institute will examine the documents involving the quality system under the standard of the quality management system. Then, the plant inspection will be conducted to evaluate the operational efficiency. If any mistake found, the improvement must be done. If the operation process is acceptable along the rules, the committee will consider a certificate approval.
4.! Granting a certificate: Operators will be granted a certificate after the quality control system of the plant has been already approved.
5.! Monitoring: The Industrial Standards Institute will regularly monitor the plant to ensure the maintenance of quality control system.
5. Copyright and Patent Registration
In case of a new product, manufacturers and designers should make a copyright and ask for a patent to prevent the product imitation. Manufacturers need to apply for the copyright at the Department of Intellectual Property, Commerce Ministry. The fee prices at 500 baht for each application. The protection of intellectual property will take effect since the period of application submission. For further details, please call at 547-4637.
Other Sources of Information
1.! Organizations supporting and promoting the industrial sector, especially aim to assist the Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs)
1.1! Organizations financing loans and providing a credit guarantee such as the Small Industrial Finance Corporation (SIFC) (phone number: 642-5207), the Industrial Finance Corporation of Thailand (IFCT) (phone number: 253-7111), the Department of Industrial Promotion (phone number: 202-4405-50), the Small Industry Credit Guarantee Corporation (phone number: 308-2741), the Export-Import Bank of Thailand (EXIM) (phone number: 271-3700, 278-0047), etc.
1.2! Organizations providing the human resources development, technology and management such as the Department of Industrial Promotion (phone number: 202-4405-50), the Department of Skill Development (phone number: 248-3393), Thai Industrial Standards Institute (phone number: 202-3300-3304) and the National Productivity Institute (phone number: 271-2939)
1.3! Organizations supporting investment and marketing such as the Board of Investment (BOI) (phone number: 537-8111) and the Department of Export Promotion (phone number: 511-5066-77)
2.! The ceramics industry including the production of tableware ceramic has been promoted by the Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation (phone number: 642-7090-6 ext.211, 220). The industry also gets a three-year promotion of Energy Conservation Promotional Fund, the National Energy Policy Office (NEPO) starting from October 1996 to October 1999. However, the promotion period has been expanded until July 2000. The fund will provide the financial support to make or buy the kiln at a maximum of 34 percent of the whole price. The kiln must be guaranteed on the efficiency of security and energy saving. The financial support is limited at a maximum of two kilns per each applicant. The promotional project also helps develop the human resources, provides knowledge and skills of ceramic firing and upgrades product quality to meet the international standards. The seminar and training on several issues such as raw material preparation, ceramic kiln control technique will be held for the operators, kiln makers and other people interested.
The highly efficient ceramic kiln is a fiber-lining kiln with specific attributes such as a lightweight and heat insulation. It can save the energy especially for the Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), accounting for 30-50 percent compared with the old kilns (a refractory brick). The fiber-lining kiln not only improves the product quality in terms of color harmony and less wastes but also increases the capacity due to short period of firing.
Table 7: The Kiln Price of the Project and the Rate of Energy Saving
Kiln size The price Financial support Amount of The average
(cubic meters) determination of the payment for the rate of energy
project (baht) (34%) attendants (66%) saving
1.0 350,000 119,000 231,000 45.65%
1.5 450,000 153,000 297,000 N.A.
2.5 650,000 221,000 429,000 45.88%
4.0 800,000 272,000 528,000 52.00%
5.5 or above Negotiable price 289,000 Deductions 44.22% between buyers and sellers
Source: The Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation
Note: The kiln price is set at 40 baht quoted to the dollar. The average energy saving is based on the LPG
saving against the old kiln usage (a refractory brick)
3. The National Metal and Materials Technology Center of the National Science and Technology Development Agency, (Tel. 644-8150), will be pleased to provide consultations on research and development of ceramic products and to act as consultant and analyst in solving problems on the production process for the improvement of management and in providing services in carrying out tests and analyses of raw materials and products.
4. The Department of Metal Science, Faculty of science, Chulalongkorn University, in cooperation with a group of ceramic enterprisers, has set up the ceramic association of Thailand for the purposes of offering academic advice on ceramic and exchanging information and data between ceramic manufacturers and concerned department officials in order to overcome problems and develop the industry
The total market value of the tableware ceramic industry grew by an average of 17.5% a year during 1995-1998 and declined by 9% or 5,508 million baht in 1999. Despite the improving economy, the financial and investment sectors have been consistently slowing down. This is due to the decline of domestic demand (local sales and imports) and exports. The total market value of the tableware ceramic industry in 2000 is projected to rise by 7% year-on-year, and 80% of which are for the export orientation.
About of 90-100 manufacturers have currently operated in the tableware ceramic business, most of them have produced Stoneware and Earthenware. Both kinds of products have a relatively tough competition because the production doesn't need a large amount of investment capital. The production requires neither a complicated technique nor a highly skillful technician. However, Stoneware and Earthenware have a lower margin compared to Porcelain and Bone China.
The tableware ceramic industry uses clay as the main ingredient, which can be obtained in the country, except some materials that manufacturers need to import due to a typical attribute such as bone ashes, etc. Nevertheless, the small and medium-sized manufacturers in particular currently prefer to use instant clay or compound clay in the production process owing to convenience and timeliness. Meanwhile, other materials are necessary to import from abroad, such as color or pigment and glaze or frit, etc. The main machinery used in production, namely a ceramic kiln, a clay mixing machine, a forming machine and molds, are available in the country; while labor forces can be recruited nationwide.
The total investment capital for the tableware ceramic industry depends on the production category. The initial investment capital is mostly spent on raw materials and wages while the machinery doesn't cost too high. At the same time, the overhead expenses are mainly the energy cost (a gasoline or electricity) for firing ceramics, followed by depreciation, and interest expenses in case of borrowing for operation.
Marketing
Demand: Present and Future
The tableware ceramic has been divided into four core categories. Firstly, Earthenware is a thick and finely product, but it has a porous attribute that can absorb the water such as a chicken brand bowl, a rice dish or a noodle bowl, etc. Secondly, Stoneware is a solid and thick product. It is usually produced in an opaque glaze. Thirdly, Porcelain has a better quality than the above two products, but it costs more expensive. Porcelain consists of the opaque glazed porcelain and the transparent glazed porcelain. Its attributes are solid and water-resistant. Porcelain has been usually produced the slim and shiny glazed ceramics. Lastly, Bone China is the highest quality and most expensive product among all kind tableware ceramics. It is white, shiny, slim and lightweight. Bone China is the best quality of strength as made of animal bones or bone ash.
The total market value of the tableware ceramic industry during 1995-1998 grew by an average of 17.5% a year. The export markets (about 75-80% of total market value) expanded by an average of 22% a year, totalling 5,151 million baht in 1998. At the same time, the domestic market growth (local sales and imports) was unchanged at 930 million baht. Despite the improving economy since 1999, but the financial and investment sentiments have been consistently slowdown, particularly the hotel, restaurant and food store business. Meanwhile, the purchasing power of consumers becomes lower contributing to the demand shrink of tableware ceramic by 9%, accounting for 5,508 million baht. About 820 million baht of total sales generated from domestic market, or dropped by 9% from last year. For imports, both volume and value are expected to rise from a year earlier, totalling 340 tons or valuing 38 million baht. The import prices are likely to decline by 46% from a previous year as a result of the market dumping of cheaper goods from China, Indonesia and Malaysia.
The export value of tableware ceramic in 1999 is expected to slump by 9.7% year-on-year to be 4,650 million baht. On volume, the export slid by 1% only amounting to 58,800 tons. This was partially due to the tougher competition in export markets and contributing to the downtrend of export prices by 9% from a year ago. Of total export value, about 36% generated from Porcelain and Bone China while the rest of 64% came from Earthenware and Stoneware. Nevertheless, the price of porcelain and bone china tends to decrease in a higher ratio than of earthenware and stoneware because of the design and quality development to meet the upper and middle-class markets demand. The main export markets of tableware ceramic are United States, Japan, Australia, and such the European countries as England, German, Italy, etc.
The total market value of tableware ceramic in 2000 is projected to grow by 7% from a year earlier to be 5.9 billion baht. Of total market value, above 80% of tableware ceramic industry are export-oriented. The export growth is projected to increase by 7.5%, valuing 5 billion baht because of the improvement of product design and quality to meet the market demand and the expansion of the emerging market like the Middle East. Domestic consumption (domestic sale and imports) will rise by 4.9% to 900 million baht in parallel with the improving economy, finance and investment.
Present Manufacturers
A total of 90-100 manufacturers have currently operated in the tableware ceramic industry. Most of them are small and medium-sized. The tableware industry is the oriented-export production, accounting for above 70%. The production is mostly Stoneware and Earthenware. The competition is relatively high compared to Porcelain and Bone China because they require no high investment capital, non-complicated production technique and no high skills. Stoneware and Earthenware, however, gain a lower margin compared to Porcelain and Bone China. Currently, quite a few manufacturers have produced Porcelain and Bone China such as Royal Porcelain Co., Ltd. and Siam Fine China, a subsidiary of Jalaprathan Cement and Patra Porcelain Co., Ltd., etc. A large manufacturer usually locates a plant nearby Bangkok due to convenient transportation while the small and medium-sized manufacturers scatter their plants in upcountry, especially in the north such as Lampang and Chieng Mai because of easy access to raw material sources and low wages.
List of Major Tableware Ceramic Manufacturers
Large Size Registered capital (baht)
Siam Fine China Co., Ltd. 700,000,000
Thai Ceramics Co., Ltd. 422,000,000
Patra Porcelain Co., Ltd. 330,000,000
Royal Porcelain Co., Ltd. 300,000,000
Medium and Small Sizes
Thai Porcelain Co., Ltd. 109,000,000
Thai Pottery Industry Co., Ltd. 80,000,000
Pongpaibul Industry Co., Ltd. 70,000,000
Kasalong Ceramics Co., Ltd. 68,571,000
Eastern Chinaware Co., Ltd. 48,350,000
Two way Ceramics Co., Ltd. 35,000,000
Source: Department of Industrial Works and Board of Investment (BOI)
Distribution Channels
The clients of tableware ceramic are divided into three categories that are:
1.! Lower class: a small-sized food store or trolley and a low-income household. The favored products are mostly Stoneware and Earthenware.
2.! Middle class: hotels, a medium-sized food store, restaurants and a medium-income household. The popular products are usually Stoneware and Porcelain.
3.! Upper class: a five-star hotel, a large restaurant, aviation and a high-income household. Porcelain and Bone China are mostly in favor.
Distribution channel in domestic market can be classified as follow:
1.! Directly distribute to the main clients such as a five-star hotel, a large restaurant and aviation. The products are relatively expensive and are made to order, etc.
2.! Distribute through a showroom and a department store
3.! Distribute through selling agents, wholesalers and retailers in Bangkok and the provinces, etc.
4.! Distribute through a booth display and a product exhibition
5.! Distribute through a promotion of other kinds of products
For overseas market, manufacturers will either sell the products through the selling agents or take orders directly from foreign clients. Clients may probably create their own designs.
Production
Raw Materials and Sources
The main ingredients used in production process are as follow:
1.! Clays consist of various mixture in different proportion depending on product category, for example, kaolin or fine white clay, sticky kaolin or fine white clay, feldspar, quartz and limestone. Raw clays are generally available in upcountry such as Lampang, Utaradit, Ranong, Chonburi, Lopburi, Kanjanaburi, etc. Bone China needs some imported materials like the high-quality bone ashes, etc. The production process starts with adding above materials together in a ball mill for fine grinding. However, manufacturers currently have an option to use a wide variety of instant or compound clays up to desired products for more convenience and speediness. Instant Clay distributors are Compound Clay Co., Ltd. and Clay and Minerals (Thailand) Co., Ltd. The price is subject to the clay category. For example, clays for Stoneware production cost five baht per kilogram, for Porcelain cost at 15-17 baht per kilogram and above 20 baht per kilogram for Bone China, etc.
2.! Color or Pigment is the main ingredient of production and enables the beautiful and attractive products.
Manufacturers commonly use the oxide substances to draw a pattern on ceramics before firing to give colors, namely, cobalt oxide (blue color), copper oxide and chromic oxide (green color), ferric oxide (brown color up to dark green), Manganess Oxide (brown color). In addition, they can use different kinds of instant colors in production. For instance, the Underglazing Color is used to draw a pattern before drying and passing into a glaze slip. The Overglazing Color is used to decorate the glazed ware. After painting, the ware will be taken to firing again. The color of overglazed ware is usually brighter than of underglazed ware. Nevertheless, the overglazing color has not been used in food container production because some kinds of glazing color may be solvent in acetic acid.
Current distributors of ceramic colors are Cernic Co., Ltd., Chakramon Ceramics Co.,
Ltd., etc.
The materials used in the color and instant color production are mostly imported from abroad such as Japan, United States and European countries, etc. At the present, manufacturers prefer to use a sticker for decoration due to convenience and promptness. Some stickers are painted with overglazing color, but some painted with underglazing color. After firing, the sticker will be fused onto the surface of desired product.
3.! Glaze helps even the product surface and make it easy for cleansing. The glazed ware is beautiful and endurable for damages of acid and sodium chloride. The glaze is divided into several categories classified by attributes such as glaze, frit, opacity and glazed surface (the surface of glazed ware will be callous like an eggshell. The glaze enables a shiny surface, callous and semi-callous). There are several glazing methods such as immerging, pouring, plating, brushing, etc., but the most popular technique is immerging. The glaze preparation can be conducted in a different way depending on desired product and surface. Operators in the tableware ceramic business presently can buy the ready-to-use glaze from the manufacturing companies, distributors or even import from abroad up to desired attributes. The glaze producer is Ceramic R-US Co., Ltd, etc.
4.! Forming Mold is probably made of a plaster for a mass production and the same design or in a case that some kinds of ceramics are produced neither by hand nor by machine.
5.! Refractory Box/Fireproof or Called "Jhor" is used to obtain the glazed ware for firing in a kiln. The box enables the ware gain heat totally and regularly, especially from gasoline or charcoal kiln. At present, the product can be placed on the pad called silicon carbide before baking.
Cost Structure of Tableware Ceramic Industry
Category Percentage
1. Raw materials 22
- Domestic Raw Materials 65
- Imported Raw Materials 35
2. Wages 40
3. Overhead Cost 30
4. Depreciation and Others 8
Total 100
Source: Interview manufacturers
Production process
Preparing clays/mixing instant clays with water
Forming by hand, platform or throwing and casting up to appropriation
Decorating and leave the clay dry
Dehumidifying clays at about
1st Firing (Biscuit Firing) 900-950C for 4-8 hours
(depending on category)
Drawing/copying
Glazing
Glaze fused onto the surface of the ware at about 1000-1350C
2nd firing (Gloss firing) for 6-12 hours.
Checking the quality and selecting
Packing/Distribution
Source: Interview manufacturers
Machines for Production
The machinery used in the tableware ceramic industry are as follow:
1.! A kiln consists of a brick kiln and a fiber kiln. A variety of fuels have been used in firing process such as bunker oil, gasoline, electricity and coal, etc. However, the kiln using fiber as a heat insulator has got a promotion and has the high popularity. It is fuelled with both electricity and gasoline. Meanwhile, imported kilns mainly come from Australia.
2.! A clay-mixing machine is generally available in domestic market. In addition, the powder-mixing machine for the bakery industry has been applied to mix the clays or made to order up to desire, and it doesn't cost the high price.
3.! A forming machine and a machine for pressing the processed clay into plates before shaping.
Investment and Finance
The tableware ceramic industry should locate the plant nearby the raw material sources or selling market. The total investment capital and equipment used in the tableware ceramic production, which require 60 tons of instant or compound clays per year and 8 working hours per day are identified as follow:
Initial Investment
1.! The registered capital and initial capital totalling 2-2.5 million baht
2.! Investment in permanent assets such as land and constructions. The area of production requires 100-150 square wah. For a small business, operators usually rent the plant for production, accounting for 5,000-10,000 baht per month up to location. The plant should open to the fresh air passing throughout.
3.! Costs of machinery
3.1!Forming machine is commonly produced in the country. The production needs 3-4 machines, each of which prices at 40,000-60,000 baht.
3.2!Clay-mixing machine: the price varies in size and attributes starting at 5,000 baht up to above 30,000 baht. The machine may probably be made to order up to desire. For a medium price machine, it values at 10,000 baht.
3.3!Two ceramic kilns fuelling with either gasoline or electricity. The price begins at 350,000 baht up to above 800,000 baht up to size. For a 2.5 cubic meter ceramic kiln, the price is approximately 650,000 baht (the price will be cheaper, amounting to 429,000 baht under a project of the Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation).
4.! At least one used car for transporting goods. The price ranges between 300,000 baht and 500,000 baht.
5.! Cash flow is spent on raw materials, wages and production expenses totalling 300,000 baht.
Personnel: a small tableware ceramic business requires a total of 25 employees.
1.! A total of 20 plant workers consist of
1.1!Clay-mixing technician
1.2!Forming and casting technician
1.3!Pattern drawing technician
1.4!Product delivery driver
1.5!Kiln control workers
1.6!Decorating and packaging workers
2.! Office workers and administrative officers: For a small business, administration manager is mostly the business owner. About 3-4 workers are general workers and clerks.--(next)
Tableware Ceramic Industry (2)
Source - Department of Industrial Promotion (Th/Eng)
Saturday, January 15, 2000 19:00
24068 XENGLISH XFF XART XGOV XLOCAL V%GOVL P%DIP
Annual Expenses
Cost of Production
1. Cost of Raw Materials 625,000 baht/year
(For 60 tons of instant clays per year, a loss is about 15 percent of total production)
- Instant or Compound Clays 300,000 baht/year
- Glaze 180,000 baht/year
- Color or Pigment 110,000 baht/year
- Design 35,000 baht/year
2. Wages 1,950,000 baht/year
3. Cost of Depreciation 240,000 baht/year
4. Overhead Costs 815,000 baht/year
4.1 Utilities
- Water 45,000 baht/year
- Electricity 240,000 baht/year
- Gasoline (for two kilns) 450,000 baht/year
- Telephone 45,000 baht/year
4.2 Transport Cost
- Oil 35,000 baht/year
5. Other Expenses
5.1!Hire for making an account 70,000 baht/year
5.2!Machinery maintenance 30,000 baht/year
5.3!Interest expenses - O/D 40,000 baht/year
5.4!General expenses -- wasteful materials 30,000 baht/year
The average profit is approximately 15-20% of total sale.
Note: Total sale is approximately 4.5-4.75 baht/year
In addition, the establishment of a product design company and the hire of production may be one of attractive ways for investment and may be proper with the small operators due to less investment capital and non-complicated technique. They usually produce Porcelain and are able to manufacture under their own trademark. The initial investment capital is rather low, totalling not more than 1 million baht.
Other advantages are no machinery venture, no plant workers, no raw material stock, no risk for the loss of production, no risk for demand drop, etc.
Expenses for initial investment are as follow:
1.! Rents for office building up to location
2.! About 4-5 product design employees, graduated in product design is preferable, especially in ceramics. At least one experienced employee is needed. The salary ranges between 20,000 and 30,000 baht per month. Outside workers may seldom be hired to create a variety of product designs. The business also needs a marketing officer to expand the market especially in overseas.
3.! The necessary equipment are such a computer for graphic design, a small ceramic kiln for producing a product sample (each prices about 20,000 baht), 1-2 forming machines, a sticker machine for a product model (each values between 200,000 and 300,000 baht). However, for an initial investment, operators are not necessary to buy a sticker machine, but they can hire other companies at 10,000 baht per design.
4.! Cash flow is the largest expenses due to the hire of production. The down payment for hire is about 30-50 percent of total wages. In addition, there is a mold expense for a new product. The price ranges between 10,000 and 100,000 baht per design up to difficulty or simplicity as well as the production volume.
Operational Process
Creating a design and a pattern
Sticking on to the surface of the ware
Making a sticker (hire/hand-made) before firing to get the desired product and color.
Making a product presentation to clients.
Having the plant evaluate the product
At least 3-4 designs should be displayed sample to determine the selling price.
It may be done in form of brochures.
Negotiating the price, design and volume
Hiring for production, mostly takes of orders about 30 days
Inspecting and shipping
Source: Interview manufacturers
The investment should concentrate on uniqueness and a wide variety of designs. Study on a trend of a product design in favor of the market is needed for the business efficiency. For export-oriented production, the average profit is relative high because operators can set a high price if the design meets the market demand. Nevertheless, for domestic sale, operators usually earn a lower average profit due to less price competitiveness and rapid imitation. Thereby, they should hire a firm offering a low price and create a unique design. Operators should make a copyright and ask for a patent for their own products and designs.
Appendix
Table1: Export of Tableware Ceramic in 1995-1999
Year Quantity % Change Value % Change
(tons) (million baht)
1995 46,329.20 -3.84 2,815.28 1.06
1996 38,928.20 -15.97 2,740.57 -2.65
1997 48,507.10 24.61 3,759.21 37.17
1998 59,396.12 22.45 5,151.08 37.03
1999 (Jan-Jun) 27,223.70 0.06 2,143.57 -17.25
Source: The Customs Department
Table2: Major Export Markets in the First Half of 1999
Country Percentage
1. United States 36.40
2. United Kingdom 12.70
3. Germany 7.60
4. Italy 6.70
5. Japan 4.60
6. Others 32.00
Total 100.00
Source: The Customs Department, calculated by SCB Research Institute
Table3: Import of Tableware Ceramic in 1995-1999
Year Quantity % Change Value % Change
(tons) (million baht)
1995 347.10 45.20 17.25 2.80
1996 371.00 6.90 16.83 -2.50
1997 1,841.70 396.40 71.23 323.30
1998 140.40 -92.40 29.12 -59.10
1999 (Jan-Jun) 181.40 248.90 20.76 47.50
Source: The Customs Department
Table4: Major Import Markets in the First Half of 1999
Country Percentage
1. Japan 51.34
2. China 38.06
3. Malaysia 2.32
4. France 2.14
5. Taiwan 0.82
6. Others 5.32
Total 100.00
Source: The Customs Department, calculated by SCB Research Institute
Domestic sale
Table5: The Domestic Market Value of Tableware Ceramic in 1996-2000
Year Market Value % Change
(million baht)
1996 920 0.07
1997 990 7.61
1998-e 900 -9.09
1999-e 820 -8.89
2000-f 850 3.42
Source: Compiled by SCB Research Institute
Note: e = estimated, f = forcasted
Selling Price
The price is subject to the product category, quality, size, style and design. The medium and high price products have usually been sold in a different set such as 16, 20, 40, 45 pieces a set, etc. Of all tableware ceramics, Porcelain is the most expensive product.
Sources of Machinery
Table 6: List of Manufacturers and Distributors of Machine and Equipment
Company Address
Inter Kilns Industry Co., Ltd. 59/24 Soi 85 Petchkasem Rd., Omnoi;
Kratumban, Samutsakorn Tel. 811-0604-5
Somsak Lathing Mill 516 Moo 10, Chompu, Muang, Lampang,
Tel. (054) 346433-4
Trimurati Associates and Corporation 15/432 sukumvit Rd, Samrong Nua, Muang,
Samutprakarn, Tel. 749-2822
Ceramic Consultant and Supply Co., Ltd. 251 Seri Thai Rd. Kannayao, Kannayao,
Bangkok, Tel. 379-9677
Kilns and Art Limited Partnership 41/5 Moo 9 Bang Pra, Sri Racha, Chonburi
Tel. (038) 770-052
Teamtec and Engineering Co., Ltd. 78/6 Moo1, Ram Indra Rd., Ta Raeng,
Bang Ken, Bangkok, Tel. 900-5524
Tai Hong E Co., Ltd. 66/36 Moo 13, Bang Pakong,
Chacheongsao, Chacheongsao, Tel. (038) 834-110
Lampang Chain Service Limited Moo6, Toong Ngam Sub-district, Serm
Partnership Ngam District, Lampang
Acme-inter Marketing Co., Ltd. 49/1 Sukumvit 91 Bangkok, Tel. 332-2270-2
Somkiat Supply Limited Partnership 71 Onnuch 64, Saun Laung, Bangkok,
Tel. 721-0425-5, 721-0653-4
Source: Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation
Note: The first 8 names are members of the Project for the Promotion of the Use of Highly Efficient Kiln.
Rules and Regulations
1.! Tariffs
- Raw materials: clays used in the tableware ceramic industry carries 5 percent of import duties. Taxes on color and glaze are set at 10 percent while the animal bone ashes are at 35 percent.
- Machinery and kiln carry 5 percent of import duties
- Instant product carries 30 percent of import duties
2.! Permission for Plant Establishment.
3.! Application of Investment Promotional Privileges
Privileges and incentives will be provided to the production of Stoneware, Porcelain, and Bone China according to the promotional criteria of the Board of Investment (BOI). The total investment capital is set aside at least 1 million baht. The promotional privileges will be granted to the plants located in zone 2 and 3. (If located in zone 1, the production must be export-oriented not less than 80 percent of total sales).
For a promotional zone 3, the plant will get the eight-year exemption of corporate tax and the five-year exemption of import duties for the export-oriented production, etc.
4.! Application for Standard Quality System
The quality control system of tableware ceramic industry has been divided into many categories so as to make consumers more confident of the hygienic standard. Most standards are involved with industrial product standards of the Thai Industrial Standards Institute, Industry Ministry. Industrial standards are identified below:
Raw Material Standard: such as TIS 485-2526 -- kaolin for terra-cotta industry.
Product Standard: TIS 564-2528 -- ceramic food containers: Porcelain. No.601-2529 -- ceramic food containers: Earthenware. TIS 602-2529 -- ceramic food containers: Stoneware
Permission for a certificate of quality control standard consists of 5 stages as follow:
1.! Making an inquiry: Operators who prefer a certificate of quality control can make inquiries to the Industrial Standards Institute.
2.! Submitting an application form: Operators submit the application form and related documents for consideration of the Industrial Standards Institute.
3.! Evaluating: The Industrial Standards Institute will examine the documents involving the quality system under the standard of the quality management system. Then, the plant inspection will be conducted to evaluate the operational efficiency. If any mistake found, the improvement must be done. If the operation process is acceptable along the rules, the committee will consider a certificate approval.
4.! Granting a certificate: Operators will be granted a certificate after the quality control system of the plant has been already approved.
5.! Monitoring: The Industrial Standards Institute will regularly monitor the plant to ensure the maintenance of quality control system.
5. Copyright and Patent Registration
In case of a new product, manufacturers and designers should make a copyright and ask for a patent to prevent the product imitation. Manufacturers need to apply for the copyright at the Department of Intellectual Property, Commerce Ministry. The fee prices at 500 baht for each application. The protection of intellectual property will take effect since the period of application submission. For further details, please call at 547-4637.
Other Sources of Information
1.! Organizations supporting and promoting the industrial sector, especially aim to assist the Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs)
1.1! Organizations financing loans and providing a credit guarantee such as the Small Industrial Finance Corporation (SIFC) (phone number: 642-5207), the Industrial Finance Corporation of Thailand (IFCT) (phone number: 253-7111), the Department of Industrial Promotion (phone number: 202-4405-50), the Small Industry Credit Guarantee Corporation (phone number: 308-2741), the Export-Import Bank of Thailand (EXIM) (phone number: 271-3700, 278-0047), etc.
1.2! Organizations providing the human resources development, technology and management such as the Department of Industrial Promotion (phone number: 202-4405-50), the Department of Skill Development (phone number: 248-3393), Thai Industrial Standards Institute (phone number: 202-3300-3304) and the National Productivity Institute (phone number: 271-2939)
1.3! Organizations supporting investment and marketing such as the Board of Investment (BOI) (phone number: 537-8111) and the Department of Export Promotion (phone number: 511-5066-77)
2.! The ceramics industry including the production of tableware ceramic has been promoted by the Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation (phone number: 642-7090-6 ext.211, 220). The industry also gets a three-year promotion of Energy Conservation Promotional Fund, the National Energy Policy Office (NEPO) starting from October 1996 to October 1999. However, the promotion period has been expanded until July 2000. The fund will provide the financial support to make or buy the kiln at a maximum of 34 percent of the whole price. The kiln must be guaranteed on the efficiency of security and energy saving. The financial support is limited at a maximum of two kilns per each applicant. The promotional project also helps develop the human resources, provides knowledge and skills of ceramic firing and upgrades product quality to meet the international standards. The seminar and training on several issues such as raw material preparation, ceramic kiln control technique will be held for the operators, kiln makers and other people interested.
The highly efficient ceramic kiln is a fiber-lining kiln with specific attributes such as a lightweight and heat insulation. It can save the energy especially for the Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), accounting for 30-50 percent compared with the old kilns (a refractory brick). The fiber-lining kiln not only improves the product quality in terms of color harmony and less wastes but also increases the capacity due to short period of firing.
Table 7: The Kiln Price of the Project and the Rate of Energy Saving
Kiln size The price Financial support Amount of The average
(cubic meters) determination of the payment for the rate of energy
project (baht) (34%) attendants (66%) saving
1.0 350,000 119,000 231,000 45.65%
1.5 450,000 153,000 297,000 N.A.
2.5 650,000 221,000 429,000 45.88%
4.0 800,000 272,000 528,000 52.00%
5.5 or above Negotiable price 289,000 Deductions 44.22% between buyers and sellers
Source: The Energy Efficiency Institute Thailand Foundation
Note: The kiln price is set at 40 baht quoted to the dollar. The average energy saving is based on the LPG
saving against the old kiln usage (a refractory brick)
3. The National Metal and Materials Technology Center of the National Science and Technology Development Agency, (Tel. 644-8150), will be pleased to provide consultations on research and development of ceramic products and to act as consultant and analyst in solving problems on the production process for the improvement of management and in providing services in carrying out tests and analyses of raw materials and products.
4. The Department of Metal Science, Faculty of science, Chulalongkorn University, in cooperation with a group of ceramic enterprisers, has set up the ceramic association of Thailand for the purposes of offering academic advice on ceramic and exchanging information and data between ceramic manufacturers and concerned department officials in order to overcome problems and develop the industry
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